J) 33

CO

THE FISHES

OF

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

JSY

FBANCIS DAY, F.L.S., & F.Z.S.,

KNIGHT OF THE CROWN OF ITALY, HON. MEMBER DEUTSCHER FISCHEREI- VEREIN, AND OF THE
AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY, MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF CALCUTTA AND
OF THE COTSWOLD NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB, ETC.. DEPUTY SURGEON-
GENERAL MADRAS AF.MY, (RETIRED,) AND FORMERLY INSPECTOR-
GENERAL OF FISHERIES IN INDIA.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOLUME II.

WILLIAMS AND NOEGATE,

14, HENEIETTA STEEET, COVEN T GAEDEN, LONDON ;
. and 20, SOUTH FEEDEEICK STEEET, EDINBUEGH.

18801884.

LONDON :

G. NORMAN AND SON, PKIXTEES, HART STREET,

COVENT GARDEN.

FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

B. Anacanthini Pleuronectoidei.

The structure of the head is apparently unsymmetrical on the two sides.

Family, IV PLEURONECTID.E, Risso.

Heterosomata, Bonaparte. Diprosopa, Latreille.

Branchiostegals six to eight: pseudobranchise well developed. Gills four.
Body strongly compressed, flattened, with one of its sides coloured, the other
being colourless or having merely some spots. Both eyes (except in the very
young) situated on the upper or coloured surface, sometimes they are rudimentary.
The two sides of the head not equally developed, one remaining almost
rudimentary. The jaws and dentition may be nearly equally developed on both
sides, or more so on the blind than in the coloured. A single, long, dorsal and
anal fin. Pectorals when present may be rudimentary. Scales present or absent.
Lateral-line on the coloured side single, double, or triple : curved or straight.
Air-bladder absent.

The members composing this family are commonly known as flat-fishes, bnt it
must be observed there are two groups of "flat-fishes." The one being as it were
flattened from above, as we see in rays and skates, wherein the upper surface is
the back. It is not so however among the Pleuronectidae or "side swimmers,"
which are flattened from side to side, except the head, which appears distorted and
likewise flattened. When referring to the pleuronectoids the terms right (dextraT)
or left (sinistral) are employed with reference to the position of the upper or
coloured side : to ascertain this the fish is placed with its tail towards the
observer, the dorsal fin above and the anal beneath. Reversed examples are such
as have the eyes situated on the side of the body opposite to the one in which it
is generally seen. Double examples are those in which both sides of the body are
coloured.

Adams remarked (Voyage of the Samarang) that such as frequent coral reefs
often have their tails ornamented with rather vivid colours, and their upper sides
marked with somewhat striking patterns ; whereas those that are half buried are
as dull and dingy as the surface is where they are found. They are evidently
aware how efficacious their colours prove for the purpose of concealment, and
when pursued sink down to the bottom, where they lie quite still on the ground,
the colour of which assimilates to that of their own upper surface.

The Pleuronectoids, or flat-fishes, are among the most remarkable of vertebrate
animals, as for about a week or more after birth they swim on edge in a way
similar to other fishes, having their dorsal fin above, their anal fin below them,
and possessing an eye on either side of the head. But as they grow older this
erect position becomes lost, their sides become their upper and lower surfaces,
while both eyes are on the superior or coloured side of the body. The adult,
when at rest or swimming, usually keeps near the bjttom of the water, and
progresses by means of a sort of undulating motion of the whole body, and of the
unpaired fins. These fish are of a broad, flat shape, and margined in almost
II. 1

74837

2 ANACANTHINI.

their entire extent by the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins ; while not only the
muscles, but the skin, the gills, gill-covers, and even the pectoral fin-rays are less
developed on the blind (or normally under surface) than on the coloured side, the
mouth also being, as it were, bent round to this eyeless side, towards which the
anterior part of the face seems to be twisted. From a very early age it had been
known that these fishes when first emerging from the ova, and while in a pellucid
condition, have an eye on either side of the head ; that by degrees the eye, on
what eventually will be the eyeless side, becomes depressed, while at the same
time a dark spot appears on the opposite side of the head, so that the fish almost
seems to possess three eyes. By degrees this dark spot becomes a distinct eye,
while that on the other side gradually disappears ; in short, the eye apparently
migrates from what is henceforth known as the blind side of the fish. Van
Beneden (1853) and many others, considered that this abnormal position of the
eyes in adult flat-fishes was due to a greater or less torsion of the entire head on
the axis of the body, or else to a twisting of the face alone. Ten years subsequently
(1863) Professor Steenstrap, having obtained examples of young flounders,
demurred to this explanation. He observed that if such were effected by simple
torsion, the nerves and muscles belonging to the upper eye must necessarily pass
over the frontal bone of the blind side, and permanently continue in that position,
which, however, is not found to be the case, they being at the bottom of the orbit ;
and he considered that the eye must have first passed under the frontal bones,
and subsequently upwards and through them. The eye, when leaving its original
site, attempts to carry the frontal bone of its own side with it, but the greater
portion of that bone resists, remaining in its place. Professor Steenstrup
consequently came to the conclusion that the eye on the blind side undertakes a
movement deeper and deeper, passing under the half roof formed by the frontal
bone of its own side, and is thus brought up through its vault ; so that in order to
find room for itself, it partially separates one frontal bone from its fellow, and partly
makes its way through the substance of the frontal bone itself ; in short, that the
eye, in attaining its final position, first passes obliquely inwards, and then ascends
upwards through the head, emerging on the opposite side. Professor Wyville
Thompson* considered that the eye of the blind side passes to the coloured
or eyed-side of the body, not through the vault of the head, but under the
integument, displacing in its progress the frontal bone of its own side ; that the
space through which the nervous and vascular connections pass is indicated in the
mature skull by the unsymmetrical posterior half of the articulating process of
the prefrontal of the blind side, the eye having maintained its normal relation to
its associated bone, the frontal, of the coloured side throughout. The eye changes
but little in actual position with the growth of the fish, the associated parts
being, as it were, developed past it and thus pi-oducing this singular obliquity.
Traquair (Trans. Linn. Soc. 1866, xsv, p. 263) believed that here we had a real case
of asymmetry in the supposed absence of the additional processes of the os frontis
anterius and proprium. But Hr. Malmf considered this conclusion to be
erroneous, and he observed that the young flat-fish is obliged, owing to the depth of
its body, increased by the development of its vertical fins, to remain on one side
while resting on the ground, the horizontal fins not being sufficiently developed to
sustain it in a vertical position. The eye of the "blind " side has a tendency to
turn towards the light, and in doing so carries with it the cartilaginous framework
of the skull, which eventually is only apparently asymmetrical. He gives
excellent figures of the first stages of these fishes. J Professor Alexander Agassiz
remarked that the first change and the process is identical, whether we take a
right or a left flounder. First there is a slight advance towards the snout of the
eye about to be tranferred : so that the transverse axis, passing through the pupil
of the eyes, no longer makes a right angle with the longitudinal axis. This
movement of translation is soon followed by a slight movement of rotation, so

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1865, p. 361.

f Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl. vii, no. 4, 1868.

j See also Gervais, Arch. Zool. Exp. 1877, p. 193, t. vi, and Lacaze-Duthiers, I.e. p. 305.

A. Agassiz, Pro j. Amcr. Acad. Arts and Science-*, xiv, 1879, 1 1. vii-x.

PLEURONECTID^E. 3

that when the young fish is seen in profile, the eyes of the two sides no longer
appear in the same place, that on the blind side being now slightly above and in
advance of that on the coloured side. With increasing age the eye on the blind
side rises higher and higher towards the median longitudinal line of the head.
The dorsal fin gradually extends towards the nostrils, and finds its way behind
the eye which has come from the blind side. The eye is transferred at such an
early period that the bones of the skull are cartilaginous, and the transfer is
carried out by a combined process of translation and rotation. In some cases it
was observed to be transferred, as described by Malm, round the head by the
snout, and in others to actually pass through the soft tissues of the head, and
this divergence appeared to be due solely to the generic differences in the position
of the dorsal fin.

Some flat-fishes have the eyes normally on the right side of the body, others
on the left, but reversed instances, or those in which the coloured side is on that
which is as a rule uncoloured, are not uncommon among most genera of
Pleuronectoids. Such is very frequently observed in flounders, these fishes, living
close in shore, being* more exposed to the actions of currents than those genera
which live in the deep sea. In this way they become in their very early life forced
on to the side which is not the normal one. Such valuations are more commonly
perceived in some localities than in others, and will generally be found due to local
disturbing causes. Professor Agassiz kept young flounders in glass vases, raised
high above the table, and found that, notwithstanding the fact that here no
disturbance could occur, seven out of fifteen were noticed endeavouring to force
the eye round the wrong way, by lying down on the opposite side. But all the
seven soon died, and this may account for the comparative scarcity of reversed flat-
fishes. He also observed that the presence of light on all sides failed to arrest, or
even to delay, the transfer of the eye, and the consequent change in the colour
of the under side, which invariably became white with advancing age, when that
organ passed over to the upper surface. Thus it would appear that the absence of
light is not the primary or sole cause of the want of colour on the under side of
the flat-fishes.

While the eye is progressing from the one side of the head to the opposite where
it is to find its final resting place, its course is occasionally arrested, and it may
remain permanently stationary on the upper surface of the head, and this is
commonly seen in what is known as " double flat-fishes,"* or those coloured on both
sides. f Donovan obtained a young double turbot, and thinking he had discovered
an unknown fish, termed it Pleuronectes cyclops, and which he figured on plate xc.
" So singularly different," says that author, " is this from the rest of the
Pleuronectes that it seems to militate even against the chai'acter of the genus,
which requires that both eyes should be placed on one side. We were almost
tempted, from this consideration, to constitute a new genus for this curious fish."
Yarrell remarks, " The Pleuronectes cyclops of Mr. Donovan, I believe to be an
example of the young fry of the turbot, the head of which is not perfectly formed."
Double fishes have been observed in flounders, turbot, plaice, soles, etc., and they
are seen to swim vertically, and to be more frequently found near the surface of
the water than those which progress in a normal manner. All who have eaten
these double flat-fishes know how they are most deservedly held in greater estima-
tion for the table than others which have an uncoloured as well as a coloured side.
Then there are albinos or those which are uncoloured or nearly white on both
sides (being almost or quite double albinos) and still retaining their normal form ;
but in some that have been carefully examined no sexual parts could be detected.

* These would appear to be examples in which the ancestral form has been more strongly
developed than has the adopted. The early lives of these fishes afford excellent illustrations of these
two distinct phenomena, or of ancestral or inherited form and adopted modification. For in the
earlier stages of their existence after leaving the egg, they swim on edge with an eye on either side
of the head as in other fishes; but in a definite period they assume their adopted form of both eyes
being on the same side. No matter through how many countless generations these pleuronectoids
may pass, still the embryonic or early fry condition, or an eye on either side of the head, will continue
to be apparent, just as the visceral clefts in the human embryo are.

t In many double flat-fishes the eves are in their normal position.

1*

4 ANACANTHINI.

In the majority of albino examples only patches or portions of the body are thus
affected, and it has been suggested whether such may not occasionally be due to
a cross having occurred between a normal and a reversed example of the same
species giving rise to a sort of piebald colour.

Among these fishes it appears as if the female sex largely preponderated over
that of the male. It also seems probable that their eggs float when deposited in
the sea (see page 27). In the earlier stages of their existence during the spring
months, pleuronectoids pass their lives close in shore ; they swim on the surface
and appear more active if the wind is setting in shore, per/haps taking advantage of
it to return towards home.

Many legends doubtless are in existence throughout the universe regarding
how these fishes became coloured on one side only. Klunzinger tells us that in
Upper Egypt a tradition is prevalent that Moses was once cooking a fish, but by
the time it had been broiled until it was brown on one side, the fire or the oil gave
out. Moses, in a temper the reverse of amiable, threw the fish into the sea, where,
although half broiled, it came to life again, and its descendants have up to the
present day preserved the same peculiar appearance, being white or colourless on
one side and coloured on the other. In Constantinople a similar story is told of
these fishes, but Moses retires in favour of the Sultan, Mohammed II, the conqueror
of Stamboul. In the Isle of Man, Patterson states that there is a legend accounting
for how the mouths of flat-fishes became twisted ; the finny tribes bethought them-
selves that it was time to select a king to decide disputes, and for which purpose
they all assembled, putting on their best appearance. The plaice, however, remained
so long at home adorning himself with red spots in order to be selected their
chief, that he did not arrive until all was over and the shad had been elected " king
of the sea." On hearing the result, the indignation of the plaice was aroused,
and curling his mouth to one side, he remarked with disdain, " Fancy a simple
fish like a herring being king of the sea." And his mouth has continued awry
ever since.*

In some of the genera forming this family it is very interesting to observe the
different plans on which the eyes are modified and protected. Thus, the plaice
or the flounder are able to move these organs horizontally, or even vertically,
and it appears as if the two eyes, to a certain extent, act independently one of the
other. In the turbot this organ can be covered, for not only does a thick skin
invest the upper and lateral portions of the globe, as in most of the pleuronectida?,
but being insufficient to protect the eye from the irritation of the sand wherewith
it covers itself, it is able to elevate a thick lower eyelid, or else to depress the
transparent portion of the globe of the eye beneath this fold of skin.

Respecting the means of capturing these fishes, it is found that they mostly
reside in localities where the beam-trawl can be employed ; while due to their
great commercial value for food they are sought for throughout the year. It was
observed at Great Grimsby, during the cold winter of 1881, that the catch of soles
had increased, as then they retired into deep water. By an old law of the Cinque
Ports, no one might capture soles between the 1st of November and the 15th of
March : neither was any one permitted to fish from sun-setting to sun-rising, that
the fish might enjoy their night's food (Pennant, 1776). Constant complaints are
heard respecting the diminution in the quantity of flat-fishes and the undersized
ones that are sent to market. Thus, in Land and Water of September 17th,
1881, Mr. Epton remarks on this as a fisherman and what he has observed during
the last few years off Great Grimsby. Now these fish have decreased so that the
captures by each fishing smack are much less than formerly, but the supply
has been kept up by increasing the number of vessels. It has been suggested that
beam trawlers ought not to fish in water of less depth than twelve fathoms, or
they would be injuring the brood-grounds. Once captured in a trawl, there would
be but little use in returning the small fish to the sea, as they are usually too much
injured.

* The muscles oi' these fishes are more developed on the coloured than on the blind side of the
body.

PLEURONECTID^E. 5

Dr. Sauvagc lias remarked that the various degrees of development of the
termination of the vertebral column in the genera Rhombus, Solea, and Pleuronectes
are in accordance with their geological appearance (Compt. Rend., April, 1872),
while, geologically speaking, they are a modern family of fishes, having been
found in a fossil state in the early Tertiary deposits (Rhombus solea), but no
remains of allied forms occur associated with those of the bony fishes of tho
Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks.

Geographical distribution. These littoral forms are mostly found where the sea
possesses a sandy bottom, or else in muddy or sandy rivers, rarely existing at
great depths, and but seldom frequenting rocky or precipitous coasts ; while due
to the deficiency of an air-bladder they live at the bottom. Pleuronectoids are
most numerous towards the tropics, where, however, they do not attain to so large
a size as those which reside in temperate or cold regions ; they are absent from
very high latitudes. Some, as the common flounder, are anadromous forms, but
the majority are strictly marine ; while a few of the marine species have
naturally, or consequent upon experiments made by man, been acclimatized in
fresh water.

Synopsis of Genera.
A. Jaws and dentition about equally developed on both sides.

1. Hippoglossus. Eyes on the right side. Teeth in the upper jaw in two rows.
The dorsal fin commences above the upper eye. Scales cycloid.

2. Hippoglossoidcs.Ftyes on the right side. Teeth small and in a single row.
The dorsal fin commences above the upper eye. Scales ctenoid.

3. Rhombus. Eyes on the left side. Teeth in a band in both jaws and present
on the vomer.

4. Zeugopterus. Eyes on the left side. Teeth in a band. The dorsal fin
commences before the eyes. Scales ctenoid or spinate.

5. Arnoglossus. Eyes on the left side. Teeth in one or two rows in the
jaws. Dorsal fin commences on the snout. Scales deciduous.

B. Jaivs and dentition most developed on the blind side.

6. Pleuronectes. Eyes on the right side. Teeth of moderate size. The dorsal
fin commences above the upper eye. Both pectorals present.

7 . Solea. Eyes on the right side. Teeth small, only on the blind side. The
dorsal fin commences before the upper eye and is not confluent with the caudal.
Pectorals may be well developed, rudimentary, or absent. Scales ctenoid.

Genus I Hippoglossus, Cuvier.

Platysomatichthys, Bleeker (lateral-line having a curved anterior portion).

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchice present. Eyes on the right side. Cleft
of mouth deep. Gill-rakers few, compressed and short. Teeth in the upper jaw in
two rows, the outer of which is composed of conical ones : those in the lower jaw conical
and widely set : none on vomer, palatines or tongue. Dorsal fin commences above
the orbit : caudal free : dorsal and anal fin rays (except the last few) unbranched.
Scales small, cycloid and not extended on to the vertical fins. Lateral-line straight
or with a curve in its anterior portion.

Habitat. North Atlantic to the south coast of England, and stragglers off
France : and on the American coast from Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras. In
the North Pacific it has been taken from Kamtskatka to California.

These fishes are mostly captured off banks at some distance from the coast, and
at depths up to 150 fathoms. They attain to a large size. Storer records an
American example which weighed 3 cwt.

1. Hippoglossus vulgaris, Plate XCIV.

Hippoglossus, Rondel, xi, c. 16, p. 325 ; Willughby, p. 09, t. F6 ; Ray, Syn.
p. 33; Gesner, pp. 6G9, 787; Aldrov. ii, c. 43, p. 238. Passer urn genus maj us,

6 ANACANTHINI.

Sclionev. p. 62. Pleuronectes, sp. Artecli, Synon. p. 31, no. 3, and Gen. p, 17.
no. 3 ; Gronov. Zooph. no. 247. Passer, sp. Klein, Pise. Miss, iv, p. 33, no. 2.
Helleflynder, Pontop. Norg. Nat. Hist, ii, p. 220 ; Strom. Sdndm. i, p. 300.
Hippoglossus Eondeletii, Rutty, Co. Dublin, 1772, i, p. 350. Halibut, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776) iii, p. 226 (ed. 1812) iii, p. 302. Fletcm, Duhamel, Peches,
ii, sect, ix, p. 271, pi. vii, f. 1. The Holibut, Low, Fauna Oread, p. 211.

Pleuronectes hippoglossus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 4-56 ; Bloeh, t. xlvii ; Bl.
Schn. p. 147 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1227 ; Lacep. iv, p. 601 ; Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich.
p. 74, pi. xxxix, f. 156; Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, pi. lxxv ; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 295 ; Pallas, Zoogr. Roos. As. iii, p. 421 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 95 ; Faber,
Fisehe Isl. p. 148; Gronov. ed Gray, p. 87 ; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 173,
pi. xv, f. 1.

Hippoijlossus vulgaris, Flem. Brit. An. p. 199; Jenyns, Man. p. 460; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 230, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 321 (Ed. 3) i, p. 630;
Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 372 and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 212 ; Templeton,
Mag. Nat. Hist, 1837 (2) i, p. 411 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838,
i, p. 174 ; De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish. p. 294, pi. xlix, f. 157'; White, Catal.
p. 101 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist, Ireland, iv, p. 199 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 403 ;
Malgr. GEfv. Sven. Yet. Akad. Forh. 1865, p. 527 ; Gilpin, Proc. and Trans. Nov.
Scot. Inst. Nat, Sci. ii, 2, 1869, p. 20 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 134 ; Mcintosh,
Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 179 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 36 ; Moreau, Poiss.
France, iii, p. 287 (? Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. 1859, p. 30).

Ptippoglossus maximus, Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 164 ; Kroyer, Dan.
Fisk. ii, p. 381, c. fig. ; Nilsson, Skan. Fauna, iv, p. 631.

Hippoglossus gigas, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 302 ; Bonap. Pesc. Eur. 47.

Hippoglossus IAnnei, Malm, p. 508.

Holibut, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p- 149, pi, clix.

B. vii, D. 99-107, P. 14-18, Y. 6, A. 73-82, C. 15-18, Ccec. pyl. 4, Vert. 16/34.

Length of head 4|, of caudal fin 6^, height of body 3 to 3 \ in the total length.

Eye diameter 5| to 6 in the length of the head and nearly or quite equals the

extent of the snout, and from f to 1 diameter apart ; anteriorly the two eyes reach

to the same level ; interorbital space smooth, scaleless. The greatest height of the

head does not quite equal its length. Lower jaw prominent ; the posterior extremity

of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or hind edge of the orbit ; the length

of the maxilla equals about 1/3 of that of the head. Teeth conical, in the

anterior two-thirds of the upper jaw in two rows, the outer consisting of distantly

separated and large ones : posteriorly a single row ; in the lower jaw six to eight

distantly placed conical ones ; none on the palate or tongue. Fins the dorsal

commences above the first third or middle of the upper orbit, and terminates before

it reaches the caudal fin, the length of the interspace being equal to the depth of the

free portion of the tail ; all the rays are simple and unbranched except the last few ;

the highest rays are about its centre where they equal about one-third that of the

body beneath them, the anterior and posterior rays are short. Pectoral on the coloured

side half as long as the head, slightly shorter on the blind side ; Yentral short,

being scarcely half the length of the pectoral, while it does not quite reach to above

the commencement of the anal, which latter fin is low at first but at about the end of

its first third the rays become so long as to be equal to at least 1/3 of that of the

body above it, the fin terminates beneath the end of the dorsal, its last few rays

bifurcated. Caudal emarginate. Scales minute, and cycloid over the body and

head on the coloured side and some on the end of the maxilla, none between the

rays of the dorsal and anal fins. Blind side of body scaled. No spine in front of

the anal fin. Lateral-line anteriorly curved above the pectoral fin, the height

of the curve being about equal to one-fourth of its length. Gill-raliers

compressed, wide but short, the length of each not being equal to half that of the

orbit. Colours right or coloured side of an olive marbled all over with darker :

fins similarly coloured except in the young, when the basal halves of the dorsal

and anal are light coloured.

Names. Said by Ray (1713) to have been termed but, also turbid or turbot.

PLEURONECTID^E. 7

Lady fluke. Turbot, Moray Firth, also bradan leathari or "flat salmon," while at
Aberdeen the large ones are called turbot, very old and black ones blacksmiths,
and young ones birdies (Sim). Also known as workhouse turbot. Be Heilbot,
Dutch. Le Fletan, French.

Habits. This is the largest form of the family taken off the British shores.
It feeds close to the ground, but often inhabits deep and rocky situations, while
Lacepede observed that in Greenland it appeared to prefer localities also
frequented by the cod, as they probably seek the same food. Pennant remarked
(1776) that during the preceding year there had been two instances of holibuts
swallowing the lead weight at the end of lines with which seamen were sounding,
one occurring off Flaniborough Head, the other when going into Tinmouth
Haven. Thompson took from the stomach of one weighing about 120 lb. the
remains of a ray : from another ten full grown sprats and a fragment of Mill&pora
polymorphs : another was crammed with crabs and a valve of Venus cassina. On
the Dogger bank it is said to consume large quantities of shell fish, also flat-fish
and Crustacea.

Means of capture. Baits employed on very strong hooks and lines, as it
sometimes offers a most determined resistance when hooked, and which may bo
very formidable in large examples. This, according to Thompson, is not in
accordance with the experience of Irish fishermen, who assert that it is a simple fish,
easily killed, and they never lose one in consequence of its weight. Off Ireland
it is said to be generally taken on cod-lines, the Bucciniim undatum being mostly
employed as a bait. In the Orkneys they are most commonly captured in the
slack water and eddies occasioned by the various islands in the race of the
tides.

Baits. Generally those employed for the cod and turbot. In the Moray
Firth a piece of plaice is mostly used.

Breeding. April in Cornwall (R. Couch) : off Scotland in the spring (Parnell).
The roe is of a pale red colour, and the ova very numerous (Buckland).

Diseases. Thompson states that upon all he has examined were specimens of
the parasite Hvrudo hippoglossus, Midler ; and Mcintosh remarks that Epibdella
hippoglossi is often seen on the caligus of this fish, in fact JJdonella caligorum
is common.

Uses. Said to be more famed for its size than for its quality, and is sold
throughout the year except during May and June.

As food. It is little esteemed in England and does not obtain a ready sale
among the general public, unless other fish is scarce ; Mr. Rowell, however,
observes (Land and Water, July 16th, 1881), that at Newcastle they are termed
" turbot " and greatly esteemed, and as a test observes cod is retailed at 4d a lb.
ling at 5d or 6d and halibut at lOd or Is, these three prices showing their respective
local estimation. He continues : " Let any one get a piece of halibut from a
small one, season it with nutmeg, pepper, and salt, and bake it in the oven, and I
know nothing so fine no fish, turbot, sole, or salmon, can excel it ; it does not do
to boil, it is too soft, I think, and it is too thick to fry, and it does not do to slice
it, but cut a piece of three or four pounds or more, and bake it, it makes a most
delicious fish dinner."

In Cheltenham and elsewhere, Jews are frequent purchasers of halibut, but
they must have an entire fish with its head and gills intact. Thompson
considered it very good for the table : Low asserted that it is a large, coarse and
dry fish, except the head and fins which are reckoned excellent, while a small one
is far from bad. The skin is thick and oily, as also the bones, from which latter
a quantity of pure oil may be obtained. The Greenlanders are said to cut them
into large strips which are dried in the sun.

Habitat. From the coasts of Spitzbergen to Iceland, Finland and Scandinavia
to the British and French shores, but it is rare in the Channel. One was taken in
1874 at Biarritz, and likewise at Boulogne (Moreau). It is abundant off the
Orkneys, especially in eddies or where two tides meet, one captured in such a
locality was 7i feet long and thick in proportion ; it is also common in Zetland
(Baikie). Frequently met with along the east coast of Scotland (Parnell) : ami

8 ANACANTHINI.

thrives on the immense sandy plain between there and Norway (Buckland). Reid
has obtained it up to 231 lb. weight at Wick : also found in the Moray Firth, more
particularly during the month of March : at Banff in deep water (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim) : not rare at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh). Resident off the
Yorkshire coast and in moderate numbers, but seldom caught now at Flamborough
where thirty or forty years ago it was very numerous (Yorkshire Yertebrata).
In the Norwich papers of February 15th, 1873, one is mentioned as having been
taken off Yarmouth, measuring 5-| feet long, 2~ broad, and weighing 7% stone,
and Buckland, another, 6 feet long, weighing 161 lb. obtained from the same
locality in 1867. In the Norfolk Chronicle of April 29th, 1876, it is recorded that
Messrs. Parker exhibited a halibut from the deep sea off the eastern counties
weighing over 300 lb. and above seven feet in length. It has been captured off
Sussex (Merrifield) : it is occasionally taken off Devonshire but not sought after
(Parfitt) : on April 14th, 1870, one weighing 102 lb. was secured at Mevagissey :
it is not common off Cornwall, and has been taken up to 122 lb. off Land's End,
and one weighing about a cwt. is recorded by Mr. Cornish in the Zoologist, as
captured on a spiller in Moixnt's Bay on May 15th, 1882. Pennant mentions it
from the Menai Straits, and in April, 1829, an example 7| feet long and 320 lb.
weight was recorded from off the Isle of Man (Mag. Nat. Hist. 1829, i, p. 84)
and is, perhaps, the example stated by Parnell to have sent to the Edinburgh
market (1828).

In Ireland. It is taken occasionally on all parts of the coast from December
until March. In Portrush, county of Antrim, it is occasionally captured in winter
on the cod-lines, baited either with Buccinuin undatum or the flesh of various
fishes, chiefly Labridce (Zool. 1876, p. 4754).

The example figured is 26 inches in length and came from the North Sea. It
attains to at least 500 lb. weight in Europe. Olasson mentioned one exceeding
this from Iceland, and which was said to have been little short of 20 feet in
length : while Couch was informed of a still larger example captured on the banks
of Newfoundland.

PLEURONECTID^E.

Genus II Hippoglossoides, Gottsche.

Branchiostegals eight : pseudobranchiai present. Eyes on the right side. Cleft of
mouth deep. Pointed teeth in a single row in the jaws, none on the palate. The
dorsal Jin commences above the upper eye, its rays, as loell as those of the anal,
unbranched. Scales small and ctenoid, a row along each dorsal and anal ray.
Lateral-line without any curve anteriorly.

Geographical distribution. Coasts of the northern seas of Europe, extending
to and around the British Isles. Also found on the Atlantic shores of America.

1. Hippoglossoides limandoides, Plate XCV.

Pleuronectes limandoides, Bloch. t. clxxxvi ; Bl. Schn. p. 146 ; Gmel Linn,
p. 1232 ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 76, pi. xc, f. 374 ; Lacep. iv, p. 635 ; Shaw, Zool.
iv, p. 300 ; Faber, Isis, 1828, p. 878 ; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, iv, p. 629 ; Schlegel,
Dieren Neder. p. 171.

Pleuronectes linguatula, Mull. Prod. p. 377.

Hippoglossoides limanda, Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 168.

Pleuronectes limandanus, Parnell, Edin. New Phil. Journal, 1835, p. 210.

Platessa limandoides, Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 368, t. xxxviii, and Fish. Firth
of Forth, p. 208, t. xxxviii ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 224, c. fig. (Ed. 2)
ii, p. 312 (Ed. 3) i. p. 625 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 459 ; Johnston, Berw. Nat. Field
Club, 1838, i, p. 174 ; Fries och Eks. Skand. Fisk. p. 117, pi. xxvii ; Kroyer, Dan.
Fiske, ii, p. 358, c. fig. ; White, Catal. p. 101.

Hippoglossoides limandoides, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 405 ; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 136 ; Malm, p. 509 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 37.

Pleuronectes limandoides, Malmg. Wieg. Arch. 1864, p. 293.

Long rough dab, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 153, plate clx.

B. viii, D. 76-87, P. 10, V. 6, A. 60-69, C. 14-16, L. 1. 85-95, Coec. pyl. 4,
Vert. 45.

Length of head 4f to 5, of caudal fin 6, height of body 3 to 3^ in the total length.
Eyes divided by a narrow but scaled ridge, diameter about 1/4 of the length of
the head and nearly 1 diameter from the end of the snout. The anterior margin of
each eye is on the same vertical line. Cleft of mouth deep, the maxilla equals
nearly half the length of the head, and reaches posteriorly to beneath the middle
of the orbit, the lower jaw the longer. Teeth pointed, the anterior being the
longest, the front ones are placed somewhat distantly apart and in one row in each
jaw. Gill-rakers about 1/2 as long as the diameter of the orbit and placed
somewhat distantly apart. Fins the dorsal commences above the first third of
the upper eye, but is not continued as far as the base of the caudal fin, its
rays are simple, the longest being equal to about three times the height of the
body below them, and are situated about midway between the hind edge of
the head and the base of the caudal fin. Right pectoral nearly half the length
of the head, its rays simple. Right ventral, inserted anterior to the base of the
pectoral, consisting of six rays, it is two-thirds as long as the pectoral but does
not extend quite to the base of the anal, which latter fin has a short spine directed
forwards at its base,* just where it commences on a vertical line beneath the
middle of the pectoral : it ends similarly to the dorsal : its highest rays are
slightly below the centre of its length and are similar to those of the dorsal fin.
Caudal wedge-shaped, its central rays being slightly the longest ; they are
bifurcated at their extremity. Free portion of the tail two-thirds as long as high.
Scales ctenoid covering head, including jaws and body as well as a row on each

* Dr. Giinther says that in this species there is " no spine before the anal fin." Parnell
recorded its existence in the examples now in the national collection, and I find one most distinct in
my specimens. But it must not be forgotten that the British Museum specimens were only dried
skins.

10 ANACANTHINI.

fin ray. Lateral-line nearly straight anteriorly, becoming qnite so opposite the
hind end of the pectoral fin. Gmcal appendages fonr. Colours on upper surface
of a pale brownish gray or sandy : under surface white. Occasionally it is said to
be slightly spotted.

Names. Rough dab, or long-rough dah : bastard-satfic, Aberdeen : also yelloio
dab, Banff : Long-fieul-, and sandsucher, Edinburgh, the last name being due to the
erroneous idea that it feeds on nothing but sand : lemon sole, Scotland. De lange
schar, Dutch.

Habits. It frequents sandy shores, is captured along with plaice and other
pleuronectoids, and, according to Parnell, several may be daily seen in the
Edinburgh markets from May to July : Pamell found what appeared to be
fragments of some species of Asterias in the stomach of one he examined. Cock's
specimen had its stomach filled with the shells of Turritella terebra, two-thirds of
which contained hermit crabs, Pagurus.

Means of capture. It appears to be usually taken with the beam trawl.

Breeding. Asserted by Couch to spawn in May and June.

As food. Its flesh is said to be sweet and good, but rather dry.

Habitat. Atlantic coasts of North Europe and shores of the German Ocean :
Bloch appears to have first received it from Heligoland.

The first record of the occurrence of this fish in the British seas was by
Parnell in 1835 (I.e.) : Yarrell received an example from Dr. Harwood in 1833,
captured during the autumn at St. Leonard's, and in the succeeding summer two
from Berwick.

It is rare off Banff (Edward) : found at Aberdeen (Sim) : frequent during
May, June and July, in the Firth of Forth (Parnell) : not rare off Berwick
(Johnston) : Sunderland (G. Fox) : inhabits deep waters in the North Sea and
is occasionally taken at Whitby (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : Hastings (Yarrell) :
rare off Devonshire according to Parfitt : I have received numerous examples from
Brixham : Falmouth (Cocks).

In Ireland Mr. Todhunter obtained a specimen off Cape Clear in the winter of
1848, and which is now in the Dublin University Museum.

The example figured is nine inches in length and was captured at Brixham,
along with several more, in the summer of 1880. The largest British specimen
recorded measured fifteen inches in length.

PLEURONECTID^E. 11

Genus III Rhombus, Cuvier.

Scopjlrfhalmus and Bothus, Rafinesque. Psetta, Swainson.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchim present. Eyes on the leftside. Cleft of
month deep. Teeth in a narrow band without canines in the jaws, present on the
vomer. Dorsal fin commences on the snout, most of its rays and those of the anal
branched. Gtill 'membranes but slightly united at the throat. Gill-ralcers long and
lanceolate. Scales, when present, small.

The turbot was formerly preserved by the Romans in salt water ponds, so as
to be readily available for the market. The largest appear to have been preferred,
and it has been asserted that the Emperor Domitian convened the seriate as to
how a mighty fish of this kind should be cooked. Respecting the food of
the turbot and flat-fishes generally, it is often difficult to institute investiga-
tions, as they are mostly at once disembowelled by fishermen when captured,
because after death decomposition rapidly attacks their intestines, and injures the
fish in a very few hours. By Act i, c. 28, of George I, a turbot under 16 in. long,
brill under 14, codling 12, whiting 6, bass and mullet 12, sole 8, plaice or dab 6,
and flounder 7 in. long, were forbidden to be sold.

Geographical distribution. North Atlantic, German Ocean, Mediterranean,
and Adriatic to the Black Sea.

Synopsis of Species.

1. Rhombus maximus, D. 61-72, A. 45-56. No scales but tubercles.

2. Rhombus laivis, D. 82-85, A. 60-63, scaled.

3. Rhombus megastoma, D. 85-87, A. 67-69, scaled.

1. Rhombus maximus, Plate XCVI.

VrjTra, Arist. iv, c. 11, v, c. 9, ix, c. 37; .^Elian, iv, c. 3; Oppian, i, p. 5.

Rhombus, Pliny, ix, c. 15, 20, 42 ; Belon. De Aquat. p. 139 ; Klein, Pise. Miss,
iv, p. 35, t. viii, f. 2. Rhombus aculeatics, Rondel, xi, c. 2, p. 310 ; Gesner, Aquat.
iv, pp. 661, 670 ; Schonev. Ich. p. 60 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 48, p. 248 ; Jonston, i, c. 3,
art. 2, punct. 2, p. 66, t. xxii, f. 12 ; Willughby, p. 93, t. F 8, f . 3 ; Ray, Syn.
p. 32 ; Klein, Miss, iv, p. 34, no. 1, t. viii, f. 1 and t. ix, f. 1. Rhombus maximus,
Will. p. 94, t. F 2 ; Ray, p. 31 ; Rutty, Co. Dublin, i, p. 350 ; Pleuronectes, sp.
Artedi, Syn. p. 32, no. 7, Gen. p. 18, no. 9 ; Gronov. Zooph. no. 254, and Mus. ii,
p. 10, no. 159. Turbot, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776) iii, p. 233 (ed. 1812) iii,
p. 315, pi. xlix ; Duhamel, Peches, iii, sect. 9, p. 261, pi. iii ; Low, Fauna Oread,
p. 214.

Pleuronectes maximus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 459 ; Briinn. Ich. Mass. p. 35 ;
Bloch, t. xlix ; Bl. Schn. p. 153 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1236 ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 77,
pi. xlii, f. 163 ; Quensel, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1806, p. 203 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 314 ;
Faber, Isis, 1828, p. 892 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xlvi ; Ekst. Vet. Akad.
Handl. 1834, p. 56 and Fische Morko, p. 250 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 196 ; Jenyns,
Man. p. 461 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411 ; Johnston, Berwick.
Nat. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 174; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 200;
Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 162, pi. xv, f. 2.

Pleuronectes turbot, Lacep. iv, p. 645.

Pleuronectes tuber culatus, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 312, pi. xlv ; Turton, p. 97.

Bothus imperialis, Raf. Caratt, p. 23.

Scophthalmus maximus, Raff. Indice, p. 14.

Rhombus maximus, Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 250 ;
Yarrell, Brit, Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 233, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 324 (Ed. 3) i, p. 634;
Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 373 and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 213 ; Bonap. Fauna

12 ANACANTHINI.

Ital. Pesc. ; Nilsson, Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 636 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 424, c. fig. ;
Costa, Fauna Nap. ii, p. 15 ; Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 25, tav. iii, f. 1 ; Giinther,
Catal.iv, p. 407; Malm, p. 510; Malmgr. Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 293; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 137 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 48; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar.
p. 37 ; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 38 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 338.

Pleuronectes tuberculatus, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 312 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 97.

Pleuronectes cyclops, Donovan, iv, pi. sc ; Turton, p. 97; Jenyns, Manual,
p. 466 (Young).

Platessa cy clops, Fleming, p. 199 (young).

Rhombus aculeatus, Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 172.

Psetta maxima, Swainson, Fish, ii, p. 302; Bonap. Pesc. Eur. 49; White,
Catal. p. 102 ; Mcintosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. Roy. Soc. Edin. V, 1862-66, p. 614.

Pleuronectes rhombus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 90.

Turbot, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 155, pi. clxi.

B. vii, D. 61-72, P. 11-12, V. 6, A. 45-56, C 15-16, Vert. 12/19, Ccec. pyl. 2.

Length of head 3|, of caudal fin 5j to 5, height of body If to 2 in the total
length. Eyes diameter 1/6 to 1/10 of the length of the head, 1 transverse
diameter apart, lower eye 1/2 a diameter in advance of the upper eye and lj to 2
diameters from the end of snout. Not only does opaque and thick skin cover the
upper and lateral portions of the eye, but it can raise a thick lower eyelid or else
depress the transparent portion of the globe below this fold of skin, while a portion
of the iris forms a semilunar veil at the upper part of the pupil. Cleft of mouth deep,
oblique, lower jaw the longer, the length of the maxilla is equal to half that of the
head. Teeth small, numerous, and in several rows in both jaws. Fins dorsal
commences on the snout in advance of the eyes, its rays are branched, at first low
they increase in length to just beyond the centre of the fin where they are about
half as long as the head from thence they gradually decrease, ending a very short
distance from the base of the caudal fin. Pectoral with branched rays, its length
equals two-fifths of that of the head. Ventral commences under the throat, its
rays simple, the longest equals two-thirds the length of the pectoral. Anal
commences slightly before the base of the pectoral, its rays increase in length to
the 18th or 20th which are nearly as high as the highest in the dorsal fin. Caudal
rounded. The skin on the coloured side is studded with numerous bony
tubercles, the blunt points of which are directed forwards, those on the head are
smaller than those on the body. Lateral-line with a curve anteriorly, and
becoming straight opposite the posterior end of the pectoral fin. Colours
superiorly sandy brown covered with more or less distinct dark spots and
blotches, these being likewise continued on to the fins, giving them a mottled
appearance. Under surface of the body white.

Varieties in form. Examples are occasionally met with having a notch or
depression at the summit of the head. Mcintosh (Fish. St. Andrew's) figures
an abnormal form, and in his account of the fish of North Uist, observes upon
one with an eye on either side of its head, as shown in Pleuronectes cyclops of
Donovan. Couch instances a turbot coloured on both sides, in which a process
3 inches in length, thin in substance and nearly as broad as a finger, projected
from before its eyes, and was not connected with the fin rays.

In colour, varieties are numerous, there are such as are partially albinos : also
reversed and double ones. On August 2nd, 1874, a double one weigliing 11 lb.
was taken at Montrose, where, remarks Mr. Johnson, " we see sometimes in the
course of the year two or three of them, and then for years won't see any." It
has been observed that these fish from our northern coasts and brought by the
Dutch, are darker than those from the S.W. coast of England.

Names. Turbot, formerly spelt turbolt. Bod, Orkneys, lioddan or roanfleulc,
barncoch (from its round shape) and gunner-fleuk, or fleuh, east coast of _ Scotland.
Neill observes that it is termed rawnfieuh or "fleuk in roe," because it is deemed
best for the table when in "rawn" or "roe." Brat, turbrat or roddams,
Northumberland. In Cornwall, according to Borlase, it used to be termed
brett, in an old Cornish journal it is called luggatee. Birt- or byrte-fish or breat

PLEURONECTID^. 13

is alluded to in all ordinances as this or allied fishes. Be Tarhot, Dutch: Le
Turbot, French.

Habits. Freqnents sandy bays and likewise muddy localities : it appears to
constantly change its residence, migrating into deep water during cold weather
similarly to the soles (see page 40). It is very retentive of life when captured.
Its principal food is small fish, crustaceans and molluscs. In an example taken
in Torbay, which Mr. Gosden of Exeter, examined when quite fresh, he found
Montagu's crab (XantJio florida), the angled crab (Gonoplax angulata), velvet
fidler crab (Portunus puber), the long-haired porcelain crab (Porcelanus long ico mils),
the olive squat lobster (Galathea squamifera), the spider crab {Stenorynchus
phalangiam), brittle starfish (Ophiostrix frag His), and the Eurynome aspera (Land
and Water, January 17th, 1880). Pontoppidan remarks that it feeds on young
crabs and small fishes, sea eggs or sea urchins, of which it is very fond.

Means of capture. At the commencement of the season, trawls, but as the fish
retires to deeper water and rougher ground, long lines or boulters are employed :
it is taken by trammel and beam-trawl nets. In calm weather when the sun is
bright, it may be speared. In County Down they employ a spear 32 or 33 feet
long armed at its extremity with an iron barb : the fishermen even drive it down
on them when beyond their reach. In many places, fishing for turbot with long
lines has had to be discontinued owning to their being destroyed by steam- trawlers,
while in several localities these fish which used to be abundant have almost
disappeared. It is to be regretted that numbers of the young of these fish
are destroyed by trawlers, or inshore nets having a small mesh as used by
shrimpers.

Baits. These must be very fresh, alive if practicable, and shining if possible :
the lampern is deemed one of the best, and largely used by the Dutch. In the
Moray Firth, during July and August, it is often taken with herrings or sand eels
used as a bait. It will take a slice of fresh fish as those named, also Coitus,
haddock, mackerel, pilchard, sand smelt, garfish, and likewise worms, mussels,
limpets, or even bullock's liver.

Breeding. Breeds in summer : in February 15th, 1882, I found a female with
nearly mature ova. This fish has a large number of very small ova, and in a
23 lb. fish which had a roe weighing 5 lb. 9 oz. Buckland found 14,311,200 eggs.

Hermaphrodites. Quelch (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 473) published a descrip-
tion of a supposed hybrid between this fish and the brill, Rhombus laivis. Messrs.
Pile reported to Land and Water (November 28th, 1881) from Dublin having
obtained a similar hybrid weighing \7\ lb. "It had the ordinary large turbot
head, fins, and unusually large ' wings,' but the belly, though quite white like
the turbot, had large scales on it not unlike brills, the back was of a very
dark colour and covered with small lumps. The fish was fully matured and in
splendid condition."

Life history. The young turbot would appear to swim for a longer period
" on edge " than the generality of our flat-fishes. I received from Mr. Dunn an
example captured August 20th, 1880, which was about 1^ inches in length and
supposed to be two months old. It showed the eye still in transit passing round
the bones of the head. Mr. Dunn considers they are hatched in June or July :
for the first month they are quite black and swim on edge like a John Doree.
Then their skin commences to mottle with white and brown, and their right eye
begins to pass over to the left side of the head. Next they become white
underneath, and of a light leaden colour on the upper surface, and during the
period they remain of this shade on the back, which is until they have passed two
months of age, they swim on the surface of the sea. If they descend to the
bottom during this period it can only be occasionally. What the rate of growth
of these fish is, very different opinions may be given. Some young, measuring
three inches across, were obtained from shrimpers and placed in the Southport
Aquarium. In two and a half years they had attained to 10 lb. each in weight,
after two years more they further augmented to 20 lb. or an annual average
increment of about 4|- lb. each. In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society
of London, December, 1879, will be found the result of some observations made

14 ANACANTHINT.

on these fishes in Ballinskellings Bay in Ireland, which seemed to point out that
the annual increment in the sea was about 1 lb. yearly.

Diseases. Mr. Cornish has taken turbot cut in the belly by, presumably, one
of the weevers (see Trachmus, i, p. 78). When hooked and on the long lines, the
myxine or hag will devour the turbot.

Uses. A large proportion of our turbot are taken along our east coast, on or
near the various sandbanks. But the Dutch are more successful at capturing this
fish than our native fishermen, and are estimated to supply one-fourfch of the
quantity of this fish which is consximed. Their fishing commences about the end
of March, a few leagues to the south of Schevelingen. As the warm weather
approaches the fishery is gradually advanced to the northwards : and the fishing
terminates about the middle of August. The Dutch were computed to have
realized 80,000 yearly by the sale of turbot to the London markets and the Danes
12,000 to 15,000 per annum for lobsters wherewith to form the sauce (see
Fisheries, in Introduction).

As food. The most highly valued among flat-fishes. In L'Estange's House-
hold Book, sixteenth century, the mei'its of the turbot appear to have been
recognized : one is mentioned as purchased for two shillings and fourpence, while
ten plaice cost but tenpence (Lubbock). Rutty, in 1772, says it used to be termed
in Dublin " the pheasant of the water." Low, in the Orkneys, that it is a much
better fish than the halibut. If at all tainted it is liable to occasion nausea and
sometimes severe symptoms. This fish is generally boiled for the table, and lemon
juice rubbed over it is reputed to preserve its whiteness.

Habitat. The coasts of the northern seas of Europe, plentiful in the German
Ocean, and extending to the seas of Britain and round the coast of France, and
through the Mediterranean to the Adriatic.

Low observed that during seven years in the Orkneys he had seen but two or
three specimens : not rare in Orkney and Zetland (Baikie) : Banff (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim) : common at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh) : but large ones are rare
until the English coast is approached. A considerable fishery exists along
Berwickshire, Northumberland and Yoi-kshire (Yarrell).

Resident off the coast in moderate abundance (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : rare
in the Norfolk estuary (Gurney) : very fine ones are taken at the back of the
" Falls " near Margate (Backhand) : in the vicinity of Dover, the Varna and the
Ridge sandbanks, the first about seven miles distant and the latter about twelve
on the French coast, also afford good fishing ground at certain seasons for these
fish. A considerable amount is likewise captured off the Devonshire coast where,
however, it is not so common as off Yorkshire : in Cornwall not uncommon, also
captured in the Bristol Channel.

In Ireland it is taken round the coast and is plentiful to the north (Templeton) :
at Portrush, common (Ogilby).

The example figured is fourteen inches in length, from the Yorkshire coast.
As to the size it attains in this country, accounts vary, as in some places the
halibut is termed a turbot. Thompson mentions one 44 lb. weight captured in
a trammel in four fathoms of water at Springvale, County Down. Buckland took
a cast of one which weighed 32 lb. Parnell records on hearsay, one weighing
190 lb. and Couch possessed a note of one 70 lb. in weight.

2. Rhombus lsevis, Plate XCVII.

Rhombus loevis, Rondel, xi, c. 3, p. 312 ; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p. GG3 ; Ahlrov.
ii, c. 48, pp. 249, 250 ; Schonev. p. 60 ; Jonston, i, c. 3, art. 2, punct. 2, p. 66,
t. xxii, f. 13; Willugh. p. 96; Ray, p. 32. The pearl, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed.
1776) iii, p. 238 (ed. 1812) iii, p. 321, pi. 50.

Rhombus alter Gallicus, Belon. de Aquat. p. 141.

Rhombus non aculeatus, Will. p. 95, t. Fl ; Ray, p. 31. rieuronecies, sp.
Artedi, Syn. p. 31, no. 5, and Genera, p. 18, no. 8. Pleuronectes Icevis, L. Westg.
Res. p. 178. Rhombus, no. 3, Klein, Pise. Miss, iv, p. 35 ; Gronov. Zooph. p. 73 ;
Jiarbitc, Duham. Pcchcs, iii, sect. 9, c. 1, p. 262, pi. iv.

PLEURONECTID^). 15

Pleuronectes rhombus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 458; Briinn. Icli. Mass. p. 35; Bloch,
Fische Deuts. ii, p. 30, t. xliii ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1235 ; Bl. Sclin. p. 152 ; Bonn.
Ency. Ida. p. 77, pi. xli, f. 162 ; Lacep. iv, p. 649; Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, pi.
xcv ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 315 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 97 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 315 ;
Flera. Brit. Anim. p. 196 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 462 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1837, i, p. 411; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838, i, p. 174;
Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 201 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 90 ; Mcintosh, Fish.
St. Andrew's, p. 180.

Pleuronectes cristatus, Licht. in Bl. Schn. p. 153.

Rhombus vulgaris, Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 240,
c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 331 (Ed. 3) i, p. 641; Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 375 and Fish.
Firth of Forth, p. 315 ; Costa, Fauna Nap. ii, p. 10, t. xlii ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii,
p. 405, c. fig. ; T. Ogilby, Zoologist, 1876, p. 4754.

Pleuronectes lioderma, Nardo. Ich. Adr. no. 132.

Rhombus barbatus, Risso, Europ. Merid. iii, p. 251.

Bothus rumolo, Rafin. Caratt. 23.

Scophthalmus rhombus, Rafin. Indice, p. 14.

Rhombus Icevis, Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 175; Bonap. Faun. Ital. iii,
p. 23, t. f. 2 ; Canest. Arch. Zool. i, p. 27, t. ii, f. 4 ; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. iv,
p. 638 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 410 ; Collett, p. 137 ; Stein. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 48 ; Whither, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 37 ; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 38 ; Moreau,
Poiss. France, iii, p. 340.

Rho)iibus Linnet, Malm, p. 513.

Pleuronectes passer, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 90.

Psetta rhombus, Bonap. Pesc. Eur. 49 ; White, Catal. p. 102 ; Mcintosh, Fish.
North Uist, P. R. S. Edin. v, 1862-64, p. 614.

Brill, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 161, pi. clxii.

B. vii, D. (63) 76-85, P. 11-12, V. 6, A. (50) 53-63, C. 15-17, L. 1. 150, Ccec.
pyl. 2, Vert. 12/24.

Length of head 3| to 4|, of caudal fin 5f to 6, height of body 2 to 2| in the
total length. Eyes on the left side, the lower 1/2 (1/4 in the young) in advance
of the upper : 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space flat. Its eye is not so
elevated at its base as in the plaice or flounder, consequently it is not so lateral ;
externally it is similar to that of the turbot (page 12). Lower jaw projecting and
the longer : the maxilla 2/5 the length of the head, and reaches to below the
posterior third or hind edge of the lower orbit ; anterior nostril with a valve ; the
posterior open. Teeth small ones in jaws and on vomer, none on the palatine
bones. Fins dorsal commences on the snout, its first few rays having broad
fringes which divide so as to give them a brush-like appearance : its rays are
branched and the longest behind the middle of the fin. Pectoral on coloured side
half as long as the head and longer than its fellow. Ventrals not attached to the
anal : caudal rounded. Gill-raJcers about 1/2 as long as the eye, thick, about
12 in the lower branch of the outer branchial arch. Scales small, cycloid, continued
on to the head and vertical fin rays : no tubercles on the body. No spine before
the anal fin. Lateral-Hue with a strong curve anteriorly reaching to some
little distance beyond the extremity of the pectoral fin when it becomes straight.
Colours of a sandy brown on the left side, usually speckled with white or light dots
or spots : fins slightly marbled. Under surface white with sometimes a few black
or gray spots along the bases of the vertical fins.

Varieties. -Apparent hybrids between the turbot and brill have been alluded
to (see page 13). Yarrell figures the deformed head of one of these fish, see
also Zoologist, 1855, p. 4596. Double brill are not rare. I obtained one on
February 11th, 1881, 2l inches in length from Brixham : also reversed and albino
ones are occasionally observed. Thompson mentions an example which was
covered over with large, stellate, white markings on a very rich-coloured dark
"ground," looking precisely as if a shower of snow had fallen on it. Couch
remarked upon having seen an example intensely black, w r ith a few whit3 specks
on the anal fin. According to Moreau, some examples of this fish from France

16 ANACANTHINI.

would appear to have less rays in the dorsal and anal fins than observed off the
coasts of Great Britain. He also remarks upon a Mediterranean variety in which
the anterior rays of the dorsal fin are much less branched than is usual.
Pleuronectes pavonina, Costa, is the young of this species.

Names. Pearl, kite, brett, " brit " in Cornish means " spotted." Upon the
coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall it is known by the name of " kite " (Pennant,
ed. 1812). Bastard turbot, Moray Firth: siller fluke, Aberdeen: bonnet fluek t
Aberlady Bay : used to be termed lug-a-leaf in Cornwall (Willughby). La
Barbae, Freuch.

Habits. Found in sandy bays, also in deep water, and occasionally enters
the estuai'ies formed by large rivers. It feeds on Crustacea, small fish and food
similar to that consumed by the turbot.

Means of capture. Similar to what are adopted for the turbot. In the Firth
of Forth it is mostly taken by the hook, but not so along the Cornish coast.

Breeding. Said to spawn in spring (Parnell).

As food. Abundant in our markets, but not held in so much esteem as the
turbot, yet is superior to the plaice. In Ireland it is most esteemed in spring.

Habitat. Coasts of Europe, becoming rarer towards the north. It is found
round the British Isles and through the Mediterranean. It is rare in the Orkneys
and Zetland (Baikie) : also off Banff (Edward) : it is taken at Aberdeen (Sim) :
occasionally in the Moray Firth, while it is abundant at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh).
Neill records it at Aberlady Bay, Parnell in the Firth of Forth : while off
Yorkshire it is resident and not uncommon (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : Norfolk
estuary common (Paget) : it is found generally along the east coast becoming,
however, abundant along the south coast.

In Ireland it is common round the coast, taken with, but much more
abundant on sand banks than the turbot, on the north-east coast at least four to
one (Thompson).

The example figured was from the south coast. As to the size it attains on
our shores, Yarrell states that it rarely exceeds 8 lb. in weight, Parnell 10 lb.
while Thompson's finest example was two feet in length.

PLEURONECTIDyE. 17

Genus IV Zeugopterus, Gottsche.

Rhombus (part), Lepidorlwmbus, and Phrynorhombus, Giinther.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchioz present. Eyes on the left side and close
together. Cleft of mouth deep. Sharp villiform teeth in a band in either jaiv,
present or absent from the vomer. The dorsal fin commences before the upper eye,
its rays and those of the anal are nearly all branched. Caudal not united to the
vertical fins. The ventrals either free from or miited to the anal. Scales ctenoid.
Lateral-line having a strong curve anteriorly.

Steenstmp (Overs. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. 1865, pp. 95-112) pointed out that a
large opening exists in the septum which is normally situated between the gills
of the two sides : that he observed such in Rhombus megastoma, Donovan : R.
cardina, Fries. : R. punctatus, Bloch : and R. unimaculatus, Risso, considering this
as indicative that all these forms belong to the same genus, he adopted Gottsche's
nomenclature of Zeugopterus.

Geographical distribution. Shores of northern Europe, to the south coasts
of Great Britain and France.

The British forms may be subdivided as follows :

A. Ventrals not united to the anal.

1. Zeugopterus unimaculatus, D. 70-80, A. 61-68. Teeth absent from the
vomer.

B. Ventrals united to the anal.

2. Zeugopterus punctatus, D. 87-101, A. 69-80. Teeth present on the vomer.

A. Ventrals not united to the anal.

1. Zeugopterus unimaculatus, Plate XCIX.

La petite Limandelle, Duhamel, Pesc. iii, sect. 9, p. 270, pi. vi, f. 5.

Pleuronectes punctatus, Flem. Wern. Mem. ii, p. 241, Phil. Zool. t. iii, f. 2, and
Brit. An. p. 196 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 462 ; Steenstrup, Overs. Dansk. Vid.
Selsk. 1865.

Rhombus punctatus, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) ii, p. 247, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii,
p. 338 (Ed. 3) i, p. 650 ; Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist, ii, p. 271, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 201.

Rhombus unimaculatus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 252, f. 35 ; Nilss. Skan.
Fauna, iv, p. 645.

Rhombus cardina (Cuv.) Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 464.

Scophthalmus unimactilatus, Bonap. Pesc. Eur. p. 49; Steind. Ich. Span. u.
Port. 1868, p. 49.

Rhombus uniocellatus, Nardo, Prod. Ich. Adriat. no. 135.

Zeugopterus punctatus, White, Catal. p. 104; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 38.

Phrynorhombus unimaculatus, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 414 ; Canestr. Fauna
Ital. p. 161 ; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 38.

Pleuronectes unimaculatus, Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 323.

Eckstrom's topknot, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 175, pi. clxvii.

B. vii, D. 70-80, P. 10-12, V. 6, A. 61-68, C. 16.

2

18 ANACANTHINI.

Length of Lead 3|, of caudal fin 7%, height of body 2 in the total length.
Eyes on the left side the lower one (which is said to be occasionally provided
with a tentacle) slightly in advance of the upper, while they are divided by a
narrow elevated ridge, diameter about 1/4 of the length of the head, and 1
diameter from the end of the snout. Lower jaw prominent, cleft of mouth
very oblique, the length of the maxilla equals more than half of that of the head.
Gill rakers rather widely set and about half as long as the diameter of the orbit.
Teeth fine ones in the jaws : none on the palate. Fins the dorsal commences
over the posterior nostril, and is continued nearly to the base of the caudal fin, its
first ray is setiform, and of varying length, while the highest point of the fin
is above the blotch on the posterior third of the lateral-line. Pectoral on the
coloured side upwards of two-thirds the length of the head, and having its upper
rays prolonged : on the blind side it is much shorter. Ventral not conjoined to
the anal : the last fin of a similar shape to the dorsal. Caudal rounded. The
fin rays are branched at their extremities, and each has a row of scales. Scales
smaU and strongly ctenoid, each having from four to six spines at its posterior
extremity. They are continued over the head, jaws, and fin rays. Those on the
blind side are also spinate. Lateral-line forms a curve over the pectoral,
becoming straight opposite the last third of that fin. Colours reddish brown,
covered with large, irregularly placed and dark round spots and blotches, one
very distinct being situated at the commencement of the last third of the straight
portion of the lateral-line. Under surface white.

Dr. Giinther considers this fish the type a new genus Phrynorhombus, Giinther,
while Steenstrup remarks that it could only form a sub-genus.

Names. Block's topknot. Le Pleuronecte unimactde, French.

Habits. These have not been recorded.

Means of capture. Trawls and appliances useful for taking flat-fish.

Habitat. From the coasts of Denmark, round the British Isles to the
Mediterranean, in which sea it is rare, but more frequent off the coast of Italy.

Off Zetland one example was procured by Fleming, where the fishermen stated
it was not common. Berwickshire (Johnston) : in 1860 one off Redcar, in
Yorkshire (Ferguson). Examples are in the British Museum from Plymouth,
also Weymouth, from which latter locality Henslow sent it to Yarrell. Cornish
obtained one, August 26th, 1880, in Cornwall; while Couch alludes to it from
the British Channel in 1863. It is evidently far more rare than Zeugopterus
punctatus.

Ireland North-east coast, one 4 inches long, taken June 16th, 1838, by
Dr. Drummond, dredging within the entrance of Belfast Bay. August 19th,
1844, Mr. Hyndman, dredging in Belfast Bay, between Carrickfergus and
Gray point, in from 3 to 6 fathoms water, captured two, each 3 inches long.

The example figured is in the national collection. The fish has been recorded
up to about 5 inches in length from British waters.

B. Ventrals united to the anal.
2. Zeugopterus punctatus, Plate C.

Smear-dab, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776) iii, p. 230, pi. xli, Topknot
(ed. 1812) iii, p. 322, pi. lvii. Grosse Pile ou Targeur, Duhamel, Pesc. iii, sect.
9, pi. v, f. 4.

Pleuronectes punctatus, Bl. 1787, t. clxxxix ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 78, pi. xci,
f. 378 ; Bl. Schn. p. 155 ; Shaw, Zool. p. 316 (part).

Pleuronectes Icitt, Bl. Schn. p. 162.

Pleuronectes hirtus, Abilgaard in Mull. Zool. Dan. 1788, iii, p. 36, t. ciii ;
Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 60, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 203;

PLEURONECTID^E. 19

Jenyns, p. 463; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Hist. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 174; Fries,
Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 32 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 321.

Zeugopterus hirtus, Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 178 ; White, Catal.
p. 103.

Scophthalmus hirtus, Bonap. Pesc. Eur. p. 49.

Whiff, Couch, Linn. Trans, xiv, p. 78.

Rhombus hirtus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 243, c. fig. (Ed. 2), ii, p. 334
(Ed. 3) i, p. 646 ; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 376, and Fish. Firth of Forth,
p. 216 ; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 646 ; Ross, Zool. 1843, p. 106, c. fig.

lihombus punctatus, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 413.

Zeugopterus punctatus, Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 139 ; Malm, p. 518 ; Winther,
Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 38.

Mutter's and Block's topknot, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, pp. 170, 173, pi. clxv,
clxvi.

B. vii, D. 87-101, P. 10, V. 6, A. 69-80, C. 14-16, Vert. 12/25, Ccec. pyl. 0.

Length of head 3^ to 3f , of caudal fin 7 to 7^-, height of body about 2 to 2j in
the total length. Eyes on the left side, upper margin covered by a thick skin, the
lower eye slightly in advance of the upper, 1 diameter from the end of the snout,
and j to \ of the length of the head. Interorbital space narrow but not elevated.
Cleft of mouth very oblique : the lower jaw rather projecting anteriorly. Teeth
in a villiform band in the jaws, present also on the vomer. Gill-rakers
closely set, the longest about 2/3 the diameter of the eye. Fins dorsal commences
on the snout, its anterior rays not so long as the diameter of the eye : they
gradually increase in length, becoming longest in the commencement of the last
third of the body where they equal half the length of the head : the posterior
ones short, and the fin passing beneath the base of the caudal, becomes almost
conjoined with the anal, which is similarly turned under the tail. Left pectoral
nearly half as long as the head, right pectoral half as long as left. Ventral
commencing under the throat, is joined posteriorly to the anal : the skin from this
fin passes to the posterior surface of the base of the anal rays, a groove being
formed for the vent. Caudal rounded. Scales spinate on the coloured side,
present on rays of vertical and caudal fins. Smooth on the blind side. Lateral-
line forms a curve over the base of the pectoral fin, after which it becomes
straight. Colours of a rich dark brown, having a wide black, light-edged band
passing backwards and outwards from each eye. Three or four round black
marks on the back, and some irregular dark blotches and occasionally numerous
light spots. Jaws blackish. Fins dark brown, with some irregular bands and
blotches, more especially on the dorsal or anal. Under surface white.

Pennant's figure in his edition of 1776, 1. c, erroneously termed smear-dab, is
reversed, due most probably to an artistic error.

Varieties. According to Mr. R. Couch this fish is very subject to malformation
of the anterior end of the dorsal fin, causing it to form an arch over the eyes.
J. Couch observed upon having seen this fish with almost the whole of its upper
surface, except the head and a small patch near the tail, without colours or scales,
like the lower surface : the border of the dorsal and anal fins yellowish red, and
with only two'or three rays having scales ; on the tail the rays extended beyond
the border of the membrane. In another instance there was no caudal portion,
so that where the dorsal and anal fins were brought closely together the body
terminated.

Names. Browny in Cornwall : little blade hairy fluke, Edinburgh market.
At Penzance I obtained this fish and the fishermen insisted that it was a young
brill. Le Pleuronecte Targeur, French.

Habits. Frequents sandy bays, with low shelving rocks covered with sea-
weed, where it conceals itself. It is very remarkable how difficult it is to find in
an aquarium, as it hides itself in the darkest corners.

Means of capture. Trammels, or nets set for sur-mullets. In the Firth of
Forth occasionally taken in crab-cages.

Breeding. " Summer and autumn, and in winter, the young are of about

2 #

20 ANACANTHINI.

1 or 2 inches in length, and may occasionally be found under stones at low water-
mark " (R. Couch).

As food. Mr. Cornish found its flesh to be excellent.

Habitat. From the coasts of northern Eui-ope, round Great Britain to France,
where, however, it is very rare.

Round the British coast it is by no means rare, and even common off Cornwall.
Several examples have been obtained in the Orkneys (W. Baikie) ; it occurs at
intervals off Banffshire and along the whole line of coast (Edward) ; Aberdeen
(Sim) ; not common at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh) ; Firth of Forth (Smith), where
Parnell observes that it is rarely seen except during stormy weather ; off
Berwickshire rare (Johnson). Mr. Anderson Smith obtained three examples in
1882 from Loch Creram in Argyleshire. Two examples, taken in February,

1852, at Redcar (Rudd, Zoologist, p. 3504), and a third recorded by Ferguson ;
also, in 1836, several found there on the beach, but none for the succeeding
eight years (Meynell) ; in fact it is of rare occurrence in Yorkshire (Yorkshire
Vertebrata), one at Bridlington on May 27th, 1881 (Boynton) ; the Medway
(Henslow) . Along the south coast it has been very frequently taken ; at St.
Leonards, in 1872 (Bowerbank, Zool. p. 2996) ; August 23rd, 1865, one at
Bovisand, Devon, another March 12th, 1873 (Parfitt), while off that county it
is frequent during the spring months (Baker) ; at Weymouth, in August, 1854,
a fine example was taken by a trawler (Gosse) ; off Teignmouth, in January,
1843, one 6 inches long was captured in a drift net. I obtained it at Penzance
on August 13th, 1881, and heard of many more along the coast, some of which
I saw ; in fact Mr. Cornish (1866, Zool. p. 311), recording one taken in May
at Penzance, remarked that he had obtained 48 examples since 1858. Bristol
Channel (Baker) ; Swansea (Dillwyn) ; Anglesea (Gosden).

In Ireland one, 6^- inches in length, was taken March 25th, 1835, at
Ardglass, co. Down ; September 30th, 1842, Dr. Ball obtained one, 7-f inches
long, off Kingston Pier ; 2 more were purchased in the Dublin market and sent
to the University Museum ; in 1865 one was captured in the winter (Blake-Knox,
Zool. 1866, p. 5(J8) ; in 1853 another, 5i inches long, at Dalkey Sound, in 8 or 10
fathoms of water, and presented to the Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc. (Kinahan, Zool.

1853, p. 3990).

The example figured was from Penzance. In British waters this fish attains
to 7 or 8 inches in length.

PLEURONECTID^. 21

Genus V Arnoglossus, Bleeker.

B ranchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchice present. Eyes on the left side.
Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth small and one or tivo roivs in both jaivs : present or
absent from the vomer : none on the palatines. Gill -membranes broadly united below
the throat : gill-rakers fine. Dorsal fin commences on the snout and is not conjoined
to the caudal. Preanal spines may be present. Scales of moderate size and
deciduous. Lateral-line ivith a curve in the first portion of its course.

Geographical distribution. From, the seas of northern Europe, through the
Mediterranean and the East Indian archipelago.

1. Arnoglossus megastoma, Plate XCVIII.

Passer Cornubiensis, Jago in Ray, Syn. Pise. p. 163, f. 2. Whiff, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776) iii, p. 238 (ed. 1812) hi, p. 324, pi. Hi. Pleuronectes, sp.
30, Walb. Art. iii, p. 120. Carter, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 78.

Rhombus cardina, pt. Cuv. Regne Anim.

Pleuronectes megastoma, Donovan, Brit. Fish, iii, pi. li ; Turton, Brit. Fauna,
P. 97 ; Fleming, p. 196 ; Jenyns, p. 464 ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2)
i, p. 411 ; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 81, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
p. 203 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) ii, p. 251, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 342 (Ed. 3) i,
p. 654; Johnston, Berw. Nat. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 174; Bonap. Pesc. Eur.
p. 47 ; Diiben and Koren, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1844, p. 102 ; White, Catal. p. 104;
Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 165, pi. xv, f . 4 ; Moreaii, Poiss. France, iii, p. 332.

Pleuronectes pseudopalus, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed. 1812) iii, p. 324, pi. iii.

Pleuronectes Boscii, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 319, pi. vii, f. 33 ; Bonap. Faun. Ital.
c. fig. ; Canest. Arch. Zool. t. i, p. 19, pi. ii. f . 2 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii,
p. 330.

Hippo glossus Boscii, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 246.

Rhombus megastoma, Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 641 ; Gunther, Catal. iv,
p. 411 ; Malm, p. 516.

Zeugopterus velivolans, Richards. Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) i, p. 656 a.
Zeugoptems megastoma, Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 138.

Arnoglossus boscii, Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 416.

Zeugopterns Gottsche, Whither, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 38.

Sail-fluke and Carter, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, pp. 163, 167, pp. clxiii and
clxiv.

B. vii, D. 85-89 (91), P. 13, V. 6, A. 61-71 (75), C. 15, L.l. 104-110, Ccec. pyl.
2, Vert. 11/30.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 5|, height of body 3 in the total length.
Eyes on the left side, the lower nearly one-half in advance of the upper, diameter
1/4 of length of head, 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and only divided
by a very narrow and ridged interorbital space. Lower jaw prominent ; cleft of
mouth oblique ; the length of the maxilla equals nearly 1/2 the length of the
head. Teeth in jaws rather small, and in about 2 rows ; some on vomer : none
on the palate. Fins the dorsal fin commences in front of the upper eye, and
is continued to within a moderately short distance of the base of the caudal fin,
its longest rays being in the last third of the fin, most of them and also of
anal fin are branched. Pectoral half as long as the head, ventral not conjoined
to the anal, which latter fin terminates similarly to the dorsal. Caudal wedge-
shaped. Free portion of the tail as long as high at its base. Scales strongly
ctenoid covering the head and body, also a row along each fin ray. Lateral line
with an almost semi-circular curve above the pectoral fin. No spine before the
anal fin. Gill-rakers closely set and about half as long as the diameter of the
eye. Colours of a brownish yellow with obscure spots : under side white, some-

22 ANACANTHINL

times tinged with red. Donovan mentions one which, he observes, had ten or
twelve large dusky circular spots on the back, eight of which formed a circle
not very indifferently repi'esented by Mr. Jago in the figure given by Ray.

Varieties. Mr. R. Couch remarked that the dark side is mottled in individuals
which inhabit rough ground. Couch observed that the Orkney fish were plumper
than those from the south coast. Professor Giglioli first drew my attention to
Arnoglossus boscii being this species.

Names. Whiff, merry sole a term applied due to its active movements when
in the water. Carter, lantern referring to its semi-transparency when held up
against the light. Sail-fluke, Orkneys. She sole, Belfast ; ox- or white-sole,
Dublin. De sharretong, Dutch. Le Pleuronecte megastome ou Garcline, French.

Habits. Resides in Cornwall from about 4 to 15 miles from shore, and rarely
enters sandy bays. Its large prominent eyes give the impression that its
habitat is the deep sea. Off the Orkneys, Mr. Scarth says, it seldom comes to the
shore earlier than October or later than April, though it is often driven by storms
on the beach entangled among the sea-weed. He tells us the black-backed gulls
capture numbers. Dr. Duguid observes that this fish does not take a bait, and he
only once saw it caught in a net, but, he adds, off sandy shores and in calm weather
it comes ashore spontaneously, with its tail erected above the water, like a boat
under sail, whence its name. In these favoured places dogs are trained to catch
them ! The period when this fish exhibits its gambols is most frequently before
a storm, or when a thaw sets in, according to Mr. Scarth. These accounts,
Couch observes, have been confirmed by Mr. Thompson, of North Ronaldshay,
in which distant island the fish is not rare. Thompson found a CaUionymus
dracunculus 3 inches long, and 3 small Gadi in one ; in a second 3 examples of
Merlangus vulgaris 3 inches long ; in a third only shrimp-like Crustacea.

Means of capture. The beam trawl, while it also takes a bait along the south-
west coast, although it is said never to do so in the Orkneys.

Baits. Similar to those employed for other flat fishes, which they take readily,
especially a slice of a pilchard or mackerel.

Breeding. Thompson, on October 31st, at Belfast, procured one which had
just shed its ova, only a few mature ones remaining.

As food. Of but little value, or, as Borlase remarked, good for nothing. In
the Orkneys, however, Dr. Duguid observes that it is highly prized as an article of
food, its flesh being white and firm ; but that it loses its flavour by a single day's
keeping.

Habitat. Prom the northern seas round the British to the French coasts.

It is found in the Orkneys ; is rather rare off Banff (Edward) ; Aberdeen
(Sim) ; rare in Berwickshire (Johnston) ; resident in moderate numbers off
Yorkshire (Yorkshire Vertebra ta). Has been taken along the south coast, appears
to be common off Devonshire and Cornwall. Mr. Dunn observes that it is not
uncommon to see 30 or 40 brought in by a trawler in one day. It has been
captured off Somersetshire (Baker) ; Carnarvonshire (Donovan) ; Flintshire
(Pennant).

In Ireland it is occasionally taken from north to south along the east coast.
From Down and Belfast single individuals are brought to the Belfast market.
It is obtained at all seasons. Bell had it from Dublin and Youghal. During the
winter of 1865 it was rather plentiful (Blake-Knox, Zool. 1866, p. 508).

The example figured was 10 inches in length. For it I am indebted to Mr.
D'Urban, of the Exeter Museum, in the market of which town it does not appear
to be uncommon. As to the size it may attain, the four largest Thompson
records were from 22 to 23^ inches in length. Donovan observes that one
brought to him, October 31st, 1775, was 18 inches long.

2. Arnoglossus laterna, Plate XCIX, fig. 2.

Arnoglossus, Rondel, xi, c. 14, p. 324 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 43, p. 237 ; Jonston,
i, tit. 1, c. 2a, punc. 1, p. 58 ; Gesner, Aquat, iv, p. 668 ; Wil. p. 102, t. F 8, f. 7.
Smooth sole, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776) iii, p. 232 and scald-fish (ed. 1812)
p. 325.

PLEURONECTILLE. 23

Pleuronectes laterna, Walb. Art. iii, p. 121 ; White, Catal. p. 104.

Pleuronectes casurus, Hanmer, in Pennant, I.e. (ed. 1812) iii, p. 325, pi. liii;
Bonap. Peso. Eur. p. 47.

Pleuronectes diaphanus, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 309.

Pleuronectes Leotardi, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 318.

Rhombus nudus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 251 ; Cuv. Reg. Anim.

Pleuronectes pellucidus, Nardo, Ich. Adriat. no. 134.

Pleuronectes amoglossus, Bl. Sclm. p. 157 ; Turton, p. 97 ; Fleming, p. 197 ;
Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. c. fig. ; Jenyns, p. 465 ; Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 14,
tav. i, f . 4 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 205 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
iii, p. 328.

Rhombus amoglossus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 254, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii,
p. 345 (Ed. 3) i, p. 644.

Hippoglossus amoglossus, Costa, Fauna Nap. ii, p. 32.

Amoglossus laterna, Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 415 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 50 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 140 ; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 162 ;
Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 38.

Megrim, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 177, pi. clxviii.

B. vii, D. 87-90, P. 10-11, V. 6, A. 64-68, C. 15, L. 1. 48.

Length of head 4|, of caudal fin 6^, height of body 2 f to 3 in the total length.
Eyes on the left side, separated by a narrow, elevated and scaleless ridge : lower
eye slightly in advance of the upper : diameter 4^ in the length of the head,
1 diameter from the end of the snout. Lower jaw slightly the longer : the
maxilla equals 2/5 of the length of the head. Teeth in a single row in either
jaw, those in the mandibles somewhat the largest. Fins the dorsal commences
on the snout, its first few rays being occasionally somewhat separated one from
the others and a little elevated : the longest rays in the fin, which are half as long
as the head, are behind its middle, none of them or of the anal are branched :
the vertical fins are continued almost to the root of the caudal, which latter fin is
rounded. Left pectoral more than half the length of the head. The length of
the base of the left ventral wide, extending from the throat to the vent, behind it
are two prominent spines. Scales rather lai'ge, deciduous : present on the gill-
covers, none on the vertical fins. Lateral-Hue anteriorly with a somewhat
semi-circular curve becoming straight opposite the end of the pectoral. Free
portion of the tail higher than long. Colours of a brownish or pinkish on the left
side : white beneath.

Varieties. J. Edward (Zool. 1856, xiv, p. 5065) describes a fish 2| inches
long, taken from the stomach of a cod. Dorsal commences in advance of upper
eye, not confluent with caudal. V. very small. Anal commences below gill cover.
Eyes on left side, even. Scales not large, deciduous. L. 1. straight. Pointed teeth
in both jaws. Coloured side flesh-colour, at regular distances on extreme edge of
D. and A. fins are seven black spots ? Pleuronectes diaphanus. Has seen three
specimens. Black spots present in all.

In Yarrell's collection were three species of a fish termed Amoglossus
lophotes, Gunther, but whence they came has not been recorded, D. 95, A.
77, L. 1. 60. They appear to be very closely allied to A. laterna. Yarrell (Ed. 1)
p. 255, remarks upon possessing a Mediterranean skin of this species. Couch, iii,
p. 178, introduces this as a British species.

Names. Scald-fish, derived from its appearance when captured, as it then
appears as if it had been dipped in scalding water, for not only does slight
friction cause its scales to drop off but likewise rubs off its skin. Megrim,
Cornwall : Lanthem-fish, Cornwall apud Halliwell : smooth sole. Le Pleuronecte
Amoglosse, French.

Habits. Of these but little appears to be known, but the majority of British
examples have been captured along the S.YV. coast, usually on a sandy bottom
and at some considerable depth. It is said to be a favourite food of congers and
other large fishes which frequent deep waters.

Means of capture. Hoes not appear to take a bait, perhaps due to the small

21 ANACANTHINT.

size of its mouth, as well as to its living at depths where only large hooks are
tried. It is often captured off Cornwall with the beam trawl.

Breeding. Risso observes that in the Mediterranean it is very prolific.

As food. It is not of sufficient size to be of use for the table.

Habitat. From the coast of Norway to those of Great Britain and Ireland,
also through the Mediterranean, in which last locality it is tolerably abundant.

Off Banffshire it is very scarce (Edward) : Devonshire not common (Parfitt) :
but has been recorded from Plymouth (Hanmer) and Weymouth (Jenyns) : off
Cornwall Mr. Cornish observed that it is not common and considers it a variety
of the "carter:" one example appears to have been obtained at Swansea
(Dillwyn).

In Ireland an example was taken off the Galway coast by Mr. Todhunter,
September, 1848, which is now in the Dublin University Museum. Has also been
taken off the coast of Cork (Ball) : and several from Dingle Bay in 25 fathom
water (Yarrell). "Was trawled abundantly off this (Dublin) coast last winter
and spring. I saw some hundreds used for baiting crab-pots in the spring "
(H. Blake-Knox, Zool. 1866, p. 508).

Couch has recorded one 6| inches in length, and observes that it attains to
7 inches.

PLEURONECTlBvE. 25

Genus VI Pleuronectes, Artedi.

Platessa, Cuvier; Limanda, Microstomus, and Glyptocephalus, Gottsche :
Platichthys, Girard ; Clidoderma, Pseudopleuronectes, Brachyprosopon, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals five to seven : pseudobranchice present. Eyes on the right side:
the upper not in advance of the lower. Cleft of mouth shalloiv. Teeth of a moderate
size, in a single or double row in each jaiv, and which are most developed on the blind
side : none on the vomer or palate. Dorsal fin commences above the eyes : both
pectorals present. Vertical fins not confluent. Scales small or rudimentary.

Considerable differences are observable in the species composing this genns, as
may be perceived when observing the numerous sub-divisions into which it has
been subjected. Irrespective of this, considerable variations are found among
individuals belonging to the same species, as has been already remarked upon as
a family characteristic (see page 3). While Gill has observed a species in which
the male has rough and the female smooth scales, while during the breeding
season the teeth are movable in both sexes.

As bait for these fishes on foul ground lug- worms and pieces of the flesh of the
conger or herring are much used. But the majority along the British coasts are
obtained by means of the beam trawl. I shall defer the consideration of this
mode of fishing until arriving at the valuable genus of Solea (page 3-7).

The British forms belonging to this genus have been thus divided :

A. Teeth lanceolate and compressed.

a. Lateral-line nearly or quite straight.

1. A spine before the anal fin.

1. Pleuronectes platessa, D. 66-77, A. 50-57. Rough interorbital ridge.

2. Pleuronectes microcephalics, D. 85-93, A. 70-76. Yellowish, blotched with
dai'ker patches.

2. No spine before the anal fin.

3. Pleuronectes cynoghssus, D. 102-115, A. 86-97.

b. Lateral-line strongly curved anteriorly.

4. Pleuronectes limanda, D. 65-78, A. 50-62.

B. Teeth conical,
a. Lateral-line with a slight curve anteriorly.

5. Pleuronectes flesus, D. 60-62, A. 39-45. Ossicles at base of dorsal and anal
rays.

A. Teeth lanceolate and compressed.

a. Lateral-line nearly or quite straight.
1. A spine before the anal fin.

1. Pleuronectes platessa, Plate CI.

Passer vulgaris and Quadratulus, i, p. 143 ; Belon. i, p. 142. Passer, pt.
Rondel, xi, c. 7, p. 316; Gesner, pp. 664, 670; Schonev. p. 61; Ray, p. 31.
Alia passeris species, Rondel, xi, c. 8, p. 318. Passer Icevis, Aldrov. ii, c. 47,
p. 243 ; Jonston, i, tit. iii, c. 3, art. 2, punct. i, t. xxii. Pleuronectes, sp. Artedi,

26 ANACANTHINI.

Gen. p. 17, no. 1, Spec. p. 57, no. 1, Synon. p. 30, no. 1 ; Gronov. Zoopli. no.
246. Passer, spec. Klein, Pise. Mss. iv, p. 34, no. 6, t. vii, f. 3. Passer Bellnnii,
Willughby. p. 96, t. F. 3 ; Rutty, co. Dublin, 1772, p. 350. Plaise, Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 228, and (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 304. Carrelet ou Carreau,
Duhamel, Peches, ix, p. 264, pi. v, f. 1, 2, and Pli, 1. c. p. 265, pi. v, f. 3. The Plaice,
Low, Faun. Oread, p. 212.

Pleuronectes platessa, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 456 ; Bloch, Fische Deuts. ii, p. 31,
t. xlii ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1228 ; Bl. Schn. p. 144 ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 74 ; Lacep.
iv, p. 628 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, i, pi. vi ; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 297, pi. xliii ;
Quensel, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1806, p. 211 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 96 ; Pallas,
Zoogr. Ross. -As. iii, p. 423 ; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 135, and Isis, 1828, p. 865 ;
Nilss. Skand. Faun, iv, p. 612 ; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 302 ; Gronov. ed. Gray,
p. 87 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 440 ; Schlegel, Dier. Ned. p. 166, pi. xvi, f. 1 ;
Ogilby, Zool. 1876, p. 4755 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 180 ; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 144 ; Malm, p. 525 ; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 39 ; Giglioli,
Pesc. Ital. p. 38.

Platessa vulgaris, Fleming, Brit. An. p. 198 ; Gotts. Wiegm. Arch. 1835,
p. 134 ; Fleming, p. 198 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 454; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii,
p. 209, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 297 (Ed. 3) i, p. 605 ; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 361,
t. xxxvi, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 201, t. 37 ; Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835,
p. 140 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 347, c. fig. ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist (2)
1837, i, p. 411 ; Bonap. Catal. p. 403, and Pesc. Eur. 48 ; Johnston, Berwick.
Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 174; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 192; White,
Catal. p. 98 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 291.

Plaice, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 181, pi. clxix.

B. vii, D. 66-77, P. 10-11, V. 6, A. 50-57, C. 17-18, Vert. 14/29, Coec. pyl. 2
(3-4).

Length of head 4-, of caudal fin 5j, height of body 2| in the total length.
Ei/cs on the right side, the lower one- fourth to half in advance of the upper, nearly
1 diameter from the end of the snout, while the two are divided by a narrow,
smooth, ridge. During life they are much elevated. Lower jaw in advance of
the upper with a knob at symphysis : the length of the maxilla equals that of the
orbit, while it reaches posteriorly to beneath the first third of the eye. The
anterior nostril tubular : the posterior oval and patent. The interorbital ridge is
continued as several rough tubercles to the lateral-line. Teeth compressed and
truncated at their summits, 20 to 24 in the upper jaw on the blind side, those on
the other side being few and smaller ; those in lower jaw similar to those in the
upper. Gill-rakers few, short, and widely set. Fins the dorsal commences
above the middle of the eye, and ceases a little before the base of the caudal fin,
the interspace being less than the depth of the free portion of the tail below it :
the 35th to the 38th ray the longest, and more than half as long as the head.
The pectorals on both sides of equal length and 2/5 that of the head. Caudal
rounded. A spine directed forwards is situated just before the base of the anal
fin. Scales from 90 to 100 rows, cycloid ; some on cheeks, none between the eyes.
None along bases of dorsal and anal fins. Lateral-line slightly curved above
the pectoral fin, the extent of the depth of which is less than the length of
the pectoral fin : the greatest depth between its straight portion and the anal fin
is less than the length of the head. Intestines two short ccecal appendages ; the
length of the intestinal tract, in a specimen eight inches long, from the pylorus
to the vent was 7 inches. Colours of a chestnut or rich brown on the right side,
covered with large orange and sometimes black-edged spots.

Varieties. Buckland mentions a variety destitute of spots. Reversed examples
are not rare, piebald ones common. These fish rapidly assume the colour of the
ground on which they are residing. Canestrini considers Pleuronectes italicus,
Giinther, to be this species.

Names. Plaice, diamond plaice, Sussex, from its lozenge-shaped spots. Plash
fleuk, Moray Firth. Facje or /acq, Anglo-Saxon. De schol, Dutch. La Plie
Franche ou Carrelet, French.

PLEURONECTID^E. 27

Habits. In the Orkneys, according- to Low, it keeps much to sand banks
and muddy ground. During the summer months on the east coast of Scotland
it appears to frequent rocky localities, but in February and March seeks sandy
places where it can deposit its spawn. In Cornwall it has been observed to
select water of a moderate depth, and in May to arrive inshore, also in the autumn
it is found in shoals in the quiet bays, but when the frost sets in it retires to the
deep. When disturbed it will shoot away suddenly for a short distance, and can
work itself rapidly into the sand where it lies concealed with only its eyes being
apparent. Has great tenacity of life ; one 10 inches long taken in January lived
thirty hours after removal from the water : it was kept ten hours in a very warm
room where it lay all the time on a dry plate (Thompson).

Thompson found in the intestinal canal of some taken in Belfast Bay, Tellina
tenuis, fragments of Mactria solida and Mytilus edulis. In June large ones
contained some Aphrodita aculeata, portions of Buccinum undatum, with the
remains of Decapod Crustacea, April Lucina radula, &c.

In East Friesland it has been toansferred to freshwater ponds where it thrives.

Means of capture. Low says that in the Orkneys " a few are caught on small
lines made on purpose ; but they are not much sought after." Around the British
coast they are taken by lines or beam trawls. Spillers also are shot in sheltered
sandy bays, the bait employed being the lug-worm or a mollusc removed from its
shell.

They are speared in the seas of northern Europe where the water is very clear,
heavily leaded doubly barbed spears being employed according to Pontoppidan.

Breeding. The plaice appears usually to breed about February and March, but
sometimes in autumn and early winter. On February 4th this year, 1882, I
obtained a male, which weighed 1^ lb., full of milt. Mr. Jackson, in sending some
ova of this fish to Mr. Buckland, remarked that they were obtained from a ripe
and enormously distended female in one of the tanks in the Southport Aquarium.
The ova ran freely, and at first floated on the surface, but when the vessel was
perfectly still they slowly settled to the bottom. The slightest motion of the
water occasioned them to float. The young are " first seen in April, close to land,
swimming on the surface of the sea, on their edge, with an eye on each side.
In about a week after being first seen, they may be found in pools near the shore,
about the size of a baby's finger nail" (Dunn). Buckland found that a plaice
which weighed 41b. 15 oz. contained 1 lb. 9 oz. of roe, or 144,600 eggs, which
were of a large size as compared with those of the turbot. Thompson obtained
examples 3 inches long in January, 1835.

Life history. The opinion was formerly entertained that the plaice is descended
from a shrimp, and Dr. Deslandes investigated the subject. He first placed some
of the shrimps in a vessel of salt water, and after twelve or thirteen days he
discovered eight or nine young plaice. The next year he placed some of these fish
in two different salt-water receptacles, and to one lot he added a few of the shrimps,
not so to the other. Both lots spawned, but it was only where the shrimps were
that any young were produced. On examining the shrimps, he discovered the
ova attached to the under surface of these crustaceans, and he felt persuaded that
their maternal care is a necessity for bringing forth the fry. But Lacepede
suggested that the shrimps eat the ova of flat-fishes, and some may become glued
to their under surface when they are unable to devour them. Comparatively rare
as the male is, as already observed, I obtained one full of milt in February, 1882.
Respecting how it is that in some localities the number of plaice appears to have
decreased (see page 37).

As food. This fish is in the best condition about May, and Mr. Mayhew
computed that upwards of three millions are annually consumed in London. Off
Devonshire its quality, observes Parfitt, depends upon the nature of the ground
on which it is captured, for, if muddy or sandy, the taste partakes more or less of
either. When from sand it is firm and sweet ; if from mud, the reverse. In
Banffshire it is held in little estimation ; it is usually deemed poor as food, but
bears carriage well. In Ii-eland, however, Thompson states that it is held in
general esteem.

28 ANACANTHINI.

Habitat From Iceland, along the coasts of northern Europe, to the British and
French shores : what was believed to be this species was recorded extending
in diminished numbers into the Mediterranean, and in 1878 for the first time to
the Adriatic (F. Trois, Alti 1st. Venet. (5), iv, 1878, p. 321).

Found all round our coasts. In the Orkneys and Zetland abundant (Baikie) :
Moray Firth common, especially during April : Banff (Edward) : Aberdeen (Sim) :
St. Andi-ew's (Mcintosh) : Firth of Forth (Parnell) : Berwickshire (Johnston) :
Yorkshire resident, very common, bnt Mr. Mudd informs us that it is becoming
more scarce, and that it is fonnd in greatest numbers in or near the Dogger Bank
(Yorkshire Vertebrata) : at Great Grimsby its diminution is causing alarm to
some of the fishermen : Norfolk common (Lowe) : found all along the sonth coast,
the largest said to come from Sussex (Jenyns) : off Mevagissey in Cornwall they
swarm in shoals dnring the autumn (Dunn) and Mr. Cornish observes that those
from a hard, close, killas sand are usually good, edible fish : those from a loose
gravelly sand are valueless.

In Ireland it is abundant round the coast ; to the north it is the most common
species of flat-fish. At Belfast an example 12 lb. in weight was taken and sent to
the University Museum.

Although one of these fish, weighing 6 or 7 lb. is a fine example, Donovan and
others have recorded it up to 15 lb. weight.

3. Pleuronectes microcephalus, Plate CII.

Rhombus Icevis cornubicus, Jago in Ray, p. 162, f. 1. Smear Dab, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776), iii, p. 230, pi. xli, (ed. 1812), iii, p. 309, pi. xlvii. Duhamel,
Pech. pt. ii, sect. 9, p. 268, pi. vi, f. 3-4.

Pleuronectes microcephalus, Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xlii ; Turton, Fauna,
p. 96 ; Fries, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 173, and Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 24 ;
Nilss. Skand. Faun, iv, p. 609 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 447 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St.
Andrew's, p. 180 ; Steind. SB. Ak. Wien, lxxx, Abth. i, p. 165 ; Schlegel, Dieren
Neder. p. 170, pi. xvi, f. 5 ; Collett, p. 145 ; Malm, p. 40.

Pleuronectes Icevis, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 299; Turton, 1. c. p. 96.

Pleuronectes Quenselii, Holb. Bohusl. Fisk. Goth. Vet. and Vitt. Saallsk. nya
Handl. iv, p. 59, c. fig.

Pleuronectes quadridens, Fabr. Kongl. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Afhandl. i, p. 39, t.
i, f. 10 and 11 ; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 138, and Isis, 1828, p. 884.

Pleuronectes microstomus, Faber, Isis, 1828, p. 886, and Tids. Nat. v, p. 243 ;
Nilss. Prod. Ich. Scand. p. 53.

Platessa microcephala, Flem. Brit. An. p. 198 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 457 ; Parnell,
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 366, t. xxxviii, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 206, t. xxxviii ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 221, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 309 (Ed. 3) i, p. 622 ;
Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 81, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 196;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2), i, p. 411 ; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club,
1838, i, p. 174; Kroyer, Fiske Dan. ii, p. 316, c. fig. ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii,
p. 294.

Pleuronectes cynocjlossus, Nilss. Prod. Ich. Scand. p. 53 (not Skand. Fauna).

Microstomus latidens, Gotts. Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 150.

Cynoglossa microcephala, Bonap. Pesc. Eur. 48.

Platessa Icevis, White, Catal. p. 99.

Smear-dab, Couch, Fish. British Isles, iii, p. 187, pi. clxxi.

B. vii, D. 85-93, P. 10, V. 5-6, A. 70-76, C. 15 ; L. 1. 130, Ccec. pyl. 4. Vert.
13/35.

Length of head 6 to 6, of caudal fin 6, height of body 2\ to 3 in the total
length. Eyes the lower slightly in advance of the upper, placed close together,
and not 1/2 a diameter from the end of the snout. Jaws of equal length in front :
the maxilla not reaching to beneath the front eye. Anterior nostril tubular ; the
posterior round and patent. Teeth conical, rather compressed and blunted, from

PLEURONECTIDiE. 29

11 to 13 in either jaw on the blind side. Gill-rakers very short : not numerous.
Fins dorsal commences above the centre of the upper eye ; its rays are longest
in the posterior half of the body, where they equal about 1/2 the length of the head.
Pectorals of about equal size, and If in the length of the head. Ventrals free.
No spine before the anal fin, which latter is similar to the dorsal. Caudal rounded.
Scales cycloid, covering the head (except the snout), body, and minute ones on
the coloui-ed surface of the vertical fin rays. No filament on the head. Lateral-
line on both sides, at first makes a slight curve, more pronounced in some
examples than in others, the convexity of which is above, it is then continued
almost direct to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Colours dull yellowish,
blotched, and with dark spots, more especially over the chest and along the
base of the anal fin. Dark blotches and spots likewise on the anal, caudal, and
ventral fins. A dark base to pectoral, which has also some cloudy markings. On
the under surface Pennant observed that it was sometimes marked with fine large
dusky spots, but that such were not persistent.

Varieties. Thompson took an example similar to Donovan's, March 3rd, 1835,
D. 93, P. 9, V. 5, A. 76 ; it was free from spots, obscurely marked on the upper
side and vertical fins with many shades of brown, gray and dull yellow : the
orange stripe round the base of the operculum being very conspicuous : it and
another had. a lemon mark about an inch behind the base of the pectoral on the
coloured side.

Names. Smear-dab, due to its being frequently covered with slime ; lemon-
dab or lemon-sole (Belfast) owing to its colours ; Mary sole, Scotland, Devonshire
and Cornwall, in which last county it has likewise been known as hit ; smooth-dab
or bastard-sole; town-dab, Hastings; French sole, Youghal ; sole-fleuk, Moray
Firth ; sand-fleuh, Edinburgh. Be Tongscliar, Dutch. Le Plie microcephale,
French.

Habits. Parnell observes that in the Firth of Forth it appears during the
spi'ing, but two or three seasons pass when not half-a-dozen of these fish are seen
in the Edinburgh market. In 1835 they were unusually plentiful, particularly in
February, but after March they were scarcely ever met with. Having shed their
spawn about April they retire to rocky ground for the remainder of the year.
They feed on shell fish and crustacea. Thompson found a Nereis in one.

Means of capture. Beam trawl, and with small hooks.

Baits. Soft molluscous animals.

Breeding. Spawns in May and June. Thompson found one in roe in March,
1835, but omits to mention if the ova were well developed or the contrary.

As food. Thompson considered it " a much better fish than plaice, although
not so good as sole nor so sweet as the dab." R. Couch says, " it is but little
esteemed as food ;" and Cornish, that it is a very excellent fish.

Its body is rather thicker than the common dab, and Yarrell considered its
flesh equally good, while Pamell says, some people reject it because it possesses
a strong disagreeable tarry flavour, while others believe no flat-fish surpasses it
in excellence, the flesh being firm and well tasted. The difference depends upon
the period of the year when captured, it being good during December, January
and February, and unwholesome during April, May and June.

Habitat. From Iceland and the northern coast of Europe to the British
Isles and French coast. It has likewise been captured off Kamstchatka
(Steindachner).

In the Orkneys and Zetland Dr. Duguid obtained one in August, 1848, and
Mr. Iverach in July : Moray Firth (Harrison) : Banff, not very common
(Edward) : Aberdeen (Sim) : St Andrew's, common (Mcintosh) : Seton Sands
and Aberlady Bay (Neill) : during February, March and April, off the Fifeshire
coast : Firth of Forth, not common, but mostly seen in spring months (Parnell) :
Berwick, not common (Johnston) : Yorkshire, resident and common (Yorkshire
Vertebrata) : Norfolk (Lowe) : Sussex coast (Yarrell) : Devonshire (Montagu) :
Weymouth, several (Gosse), Cornwall, rather rare (Couch), but I found it to be
common : also Brixham and Sussex coast, where it is in season during the autumn

30 ANACANTHINI.

and winter months. At Plymouth it is known as " merry sole :" at Hove, as " the
kit:" at Penzance, as "the queen " or " queen fish" (Pennant): South Wales
(Donovan) : Swansea (Dillwyn).

Ireland. " Occasionally taken around the coast, but not in large numbers in
any part of it" (Thompson), and at all seasons.

Portrush, county Antrim, " not uncommon, as several specimens may almost
always be picked out of a night's trawling" (Ogilby, Zool. 1876, p. 4755) :
the largest example measured 17 inches (Ogilby).

The example figured, 12 inches long, was from Brixham.

2. No spine before anal Jin.
3. Pleuronectes cynoglossus, Plate CIII.

Pleuronectus, sp. Gronov. Mus. Ich. i, p. 14, no. 39 (diagn. and synon. exclu.)
and ii, p. 11, no. 39, and Act. Helv. iv, p. 263, no. 145 and Zooph. p. 74, no. 252.
Craig-fluke, Parnell, Edin. New Phil. Journ. 1835, p. 210.

Pleuronectes cynoglossus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 456 ; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 74 ;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1228 ; Fries, Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 19 ; Nilss. Skand. Faun, iv,
p. 263 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 88 ; Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 449 ; Collett, p. 147 ;
Malm, p. 527; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 40; Goode and Bean, Pro. U.S. Nat.
Mus. i, p. 19.

Pleuronectes saxicola, Faber, Isis, 1828, p. 877.

Pleuronectes nigromanus, Nilss. Prod. Scand. iv, p. 55 ; Cuv. Reg. Anim. 111.
Poiss. pi. cvii.

Glyptocephalus saxicola, Gotts. Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 156.

Platessa pola, Cuv. Reg. Anim. ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 458 ; Parnell, Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 370, t. xxxviii, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 210, t. xxxviii ; Bonap.
Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 157 ; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 58, and An.
Nat. Hist. 1838, p. 16, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 196 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish.
(Ed. 1) ii, p. 227, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 315 (Ed. 3) i, p. 616; White, Catal. p. 99.

Platessa saxicola, Kroyer, Dan. Fiske. ii, p. 338, c. fig.

Platessa elongata, Yarrell, Supp. Brit. Fish, and (Ed. 2) ii, p. 318, c. fig. (Ed.
3) i, p. 619; White, Catal. p. 99 ; Higgins, Zoologist, 1861, p. 7317.

Pleuronectes elongatus, Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 450 ; Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879,
p. 755, pi. lxi.

Platessa cynoglossus, Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 296.

Pole and Long-fioimder, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, pp. 190, 193, pis. clxxiii
and clxxiv.

B. v, D. 102-115, P. 10-12, V. 5-6, A. 86-100, C. 18, L. 1. 115.

Length of head 6|- to 6|, of caudal fin 6^, height of body 3j to 4 in the
total length. Eyes on the right side, and separated from each other by a very
narrow ridge, which is scaleless in small, minutely scaled in large examples :
lower eye 1/3 in advance of the upper, and 2 diameters in the postorbital portion
of the head. Lower jaw slightly the longer, and with a tubercle below the
symphysis. Maxilla 2/3 as long as the orbit, and extending to beneath the front
edge of the lower eye. Body very thin, its greatest thickness equalling 1/6 of its
greatest height, excluding the vertical fins. Teeth in a single row, compressed,
with their crowns somewhat obtuse : most developed on the blind side. Fins
dorsal commences over the centre of the upper eye, its rays undivided, the longest
being at its middle, where they are 3/5 the length of the head : posteriorly it
terminates almost close to the root of the caudal fin, which latter is wedge-shaped.
Anal similar to the dorsal, but its middle rays not so elongated. A small spine
directed anteriorly is situated in front of the base of the anal fin. Both pectorals
with 12 rays, the left 1/2 as long as the head, the right 1/4 longer than the left.
Ventrals each with 6 rays, and 1/2 as long as the pectorals. Scales C}-cloid on the
blind side, feebly ctenoid on the coloured : some very fine ones over the fin-rays

PLEURONECTID^E. 3l

in adult examples. Lateral-live with a slightly oblique descent above the pectoral
fin, from whence it proceeds direct to the centre of the base of the caudal : it has
a dorsal branch on the occiput. Gill-rakers short, spinate, and widely separated.
Coecal-appendages two, moderately developed. Colours right side brown, with a
gray tint, being darkest about the head. A small blackish mark on the upper
half of the pectoral fin. Vertical fins of a grayish slate colour, the anterior
dorsal rays tipped with white. Left side white.

Varieties. Thompson, when examining large numbers of this species, found in
one lot the males, in another the females, almost exclusively prevailed : also that
the form of the body and the height of the dorsal and anal fins varied considerably
in both sexes. Yarrell described P. elongatus from a somewhat elongated specimen,
probably a skin, the height of the body in his figure being | of the total length :
Couch, who figured from a skin, shows the height of his specimen as about 3^ in
the total length : whereas mine is 3j from a fresh example.

Names. Pole or craig-fluke, pole-dab. White sole, county Down. La Plie
Cynoglosse, French.

Habits. Frequents sandy localities : in some years being much more common
than in others. Parnell found small crabs and star-fishes in the stomach of one
he examined.

Means of capture. The beam trawl.

Breeding. May and June.

As food. Is considered good by some, especially the French, who esteem
it to be equal to the sole. In Dublin it is looked upon as very inferior, and
Thompson remarks upon having had it dressed, when he found it a passably good
fish, but not at all flavoured like, nor equal to, the sole.

Habitat. It extends from the coasts of the North Sea around Great Britain
and Ireland to the shores of France. It is also found on the North American
coast (Goode and Bean).

Mr. Peace records in Land and Water that an example 19-*- inches long was
taken in Scalpa Bay, near Kirkwall, in May, 1880, and a day or two after another
and smaller one, the only ones he had ever heard of in that locality : Banff, rare
(Edward) : Aberdeen (Sim) : Firth of Forth, occasionally obtained during April,
May and June. Pamell secured fifteen examples : along the south coast the
same author recorded three examples from Brixham, from which locality I received
three on January 10th, 1880, and have seen many from there in Mav, 1881, and
also since that date. Mr. Dunn has sent it me from Mevagissey, where it is very
rare, and Mr. Cornish considers it rare along the Cornish coast. I have also seen
a Plymouth example. Higgins obtained two at Weston-super-Mare, and Mr.
Baker two at Stolford, in Somersetshire.

In Ireland it is found on the north-east, east, and south-west coasts. On April
26th, 1837, six examples, from 12 to 14 inches long, were obtained by Thompson
at Belfast, and on March 25th, 1839, about 120 were brought in at one time to
the market at Newcastle. They had all been captured by trawling, and about
70 more were said to have been also taken, but this was a quite exceptional take.
On May 5th one was captured at Ardglass.

The example figured is 9 inches long, and was obtained by Mr. Dunn at
Mevagissey, November 6th, 1879. It attains to at least 14 inches in length on
the British coast, and Thompson records one 16^- inches long from Ireland.

B. Lateral-line strongly curved anteriorly.
4. Pleuronectes limanda, Plate CIV.

Passer asper, Rondel, xi, c. 9, p. 319 ; Schonev. p. 61 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 46, p. 242 ;
Willughby, p. 97, t. F. 4 ; Ray, Syn. p. 32 ; Rutty, Nat. Hist. County of Dublin, i,
p. 350. Limanda, Belon. De Aquat. p. 145 ; Gesner, pp. 665, 781. Pleuronectes,
sp. Artedi, Gen. p. 17, no. 2, Species, p. 58, no. 11, Synon. p. 33, no. 9. Sand-

32 ANACANTH1NL

flynder, Strom, Sondm. i, p. 2/8. Bab, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776), iii, p. 230
(ed. 1812), iii, p. 308. La Limanda, Duhamel, Peches, ix, c. i, p. 267, pi. vi,
f. 1,2.

Pleuronectes limanda, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 457; BI. Fische Dents, ii, p. 45
t. xlvi ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1231 ; Lacep. iv, p. 621 ; Bl. Schon. p. 145 ; Bonn. Enc. Ich
p. 75 ; Quensel, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1806, p. 220 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, p. 44
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 298 ; Turton, Brit. Fanna, p. 96 ; Faber in Isis, 1828, p. 881
Fries and Eks. Skand. Fisk. p. 150, pi. xxxiv ; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 627
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv. p. 195 ; H. Malm. Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 293
Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 446 ; Schlegel, Dier. Ned. p. 169, pi. xvi, f. 3 ; Collett.
p. 146 ; Malm, p. 525 ; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 180 ; Whither, Ich. Dan
Mar. p. 39.

Pleuronectes platessoides, Faber, Fische Isl. p. 140 (not Fabr.).

Platessa limanda, Flem. Brit. An. p. 198 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 456 ; Templeton,
Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2), i, p. 411 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), ii, p. 219, c. fig.
(Ed. 2), ii, p. 307 (Ed. 3), i, p. 628 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 298 ; Parnell,
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 365, t. xxxvii, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 205, pi. xxxvii ;
Johnston, Berwick. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 174 ; White, Catal. p. 100 ; Mcintosh,
Fish. N. Uist, Pro. R. S. Edin. v. 1862-66, p. 614.

Limanda vulgar is, Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 160 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
p. 289.

Limanda oceanica, Bonap. Cat. no. 412.

Lab, Couch, Fishes of Brit. Isles, iii, p. 185, pi. clxx.

B. vii, D. 65-78, P. 10-11, V. 6, A. 50-62, C. 14, L. 1. 86-96, Ccec. pyl. 4,
Vert. 39-40.

Length of head 4| to 5, of caudal fin 5f , height of body 2f in the total length.
Eyes the lower slightly anterior to the upper, diameter 5-- to 6 in length of the
head, \ to 1 diameter from end of snout, and separated by a narrow osseous ridge.
Lower jaw prominent : the maxilla, which is as long as the orbit, extends to
beneath the first third of the eye. Teeth a row of about 22 closely set, lanceolate
ones on the blind side. Fins the dorsal commences above the middle of the upper
eye, the rays gradually increase in length to about the centre of their number
(37 or 40) when they commence decreasing in height : the fin does not reach the
base of the caudal, leaving an uncovered space equal to about 1/2 the height of the
free portion of the tail. Pectoral as long as the postorbital portion of the head.
Ventral not joined to anal. A small spine, directed forwards, at the commencement
of the anal fin. Caudal slightly rounded. Scales on coloured side with ctenoid
margins, those between the eyes and on the cheeks smaller than those on the body.
A row along each dorsal and anal ray. Lateral-line smooth : at its commencement
it has a semi-circular curve above the pectoral fin, while it sends a branch over the
occiput. Lntestines three or four short ccecal appendages. Colours Brownish,
with some cloudy markings and spots : dorsal and anal fin, with whitish margins.
Occasionally white spots are seen on the coloured side of the body.

Varieties. Thompson observed in some examples he took at Ballyhome Bay
(co. Down), in September, that they had a few black spots and markings over the
body and fins : also at the base of the dorsal fin about six round white spots at
regular distances, and about four similar white spots regularly disposed at the
base of the anal fin.

Names. Common dab, the term " dab " is considered to be one of contempt, as
in Lincolnshire it refers to an insignificant fellow : sattie, Aberdeen (Sim) : salt-
water fluke, Edinbm-gh : grey fleul; Moray Firth : grey bach, Portrush, co. Antrim
(Ogilby). Be Schar, Dutch: La Limande, French.

Habits. Frequents most sandy localities around the coasts, and Parnell found
it in shallow water. It feeds on marine worms and small Crustacea. Thompson
found in the stomach of one, captured in March, at Belfast, "fragments of one of
the bivalve shells, solen (neither of the two smaller species), and of corallines,
among which Sertidaria dichotoma was apparent." Johnston remarked that off
Berwickshire its favourite food appeared to be the pretty Fecfeii obsoletus.

PLEURONECTID^E. 33

Means of capture. Beam trawl ; seine (Montagu) ; hand-lines and deep sea
lines, being more easily taken by hooks than any other flat fish.

Baits. Marine sandworms and bodies of testaceous molluscs.

Breeding. April, May and June. Many as small as If inches long were
received from the mouth of the Thames in November, 1880.

As food. A high flavoured and excellent fish (Thompson), but if waters are
muddy the taste partakes of such ; it is largely eaten among the poor of London
and Paris. It is in the best condition from February to April in some places,
from August to December in Cornwall.

Habitat. From the shores of northern Europe to those of the British Isles,
and extending to the coasts of France, being abundant off Brittany and Poitou,
but less common in the Gulf of Gascogne.

It is found on most parts of the British coasts, being tolerably frequent in the
Orkneys and Zetland (Baikie) ; abundant at times in the Moray Firth, also pretty
frequent off Banff (Edward) ; Aberdeen (Sim) ; not uncommon at St. Andrew's
(Mcintosh) ; common in the Edinburgh market (Neill) ; Berwick (Johnston) ; off
Yorkshire it is resident, very abundant, and known as the sand-dab at Redcar
(Yorkshire Vertebrata) ; Yarmouth, Norfolk (Lowe). It is by no means
uncommon along the south coast, especially Devonshire (Montagu), and very
common off Brixham and Cornwall.

In Ireland it is not rare round the coast, and has been recorded from Dublin
(Rutty) : Waterford (Smith) : Youghal (Ball) : Gal way coast (McCalla) : county
Down (Thompson) : Belfast and Strangford Loughs (Thompson) : while at
Portrush, county Antrim, it is the most frequent kind brought up by the trawl,
rarely, however, exceeding 12 inches in length (Ogilby).

The example figured, 10 inches long, was from the south-west coast. It has
been recorded off the British Isles, by Parnell, up to 15 inches in length.

B. Teeth conical.

a. Lateral-line with a slight curve anteriorly.

5. Pleuronectes flesus, Plate CV.

Passer fluviatilis vulgo flesus, Belon. p. 144 ; Willughby, p. 98, t. F 5 ; Ray,
p. 32 ; Rutty, co. Dublin, p. 350. Passeris tertia species, Rondel, xi, c. 10, p. 319 ;
Gesner, pp. 666, 782, 788. Pleuronectes, Artedi, Synon. p. 31, no. 2, and Gen. p.
17, no. 4, and Spec. no. 4 ; Gronov. Zooph. no. 248. Passer, sp. Klein, Pise. Miss.
iv, p. 33, no. 1, t. ii, f. 4, t. vii. f. 1. Flet, Duhamel, ix, p. 273, pi. vii, f. 2. The
flounder, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 229 (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 305 ; Low,
Faun. Oread, p. 212.

Pleuronectes flesus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 457 ; Bl. Fische Deuts. p. 39, t. xliv ;
Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 75, t. xl, fig. 159 ; Bl. Schn. p. 146 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1229 ;
Lacep. iv, p. 633 ; Donovan, Brit. Fish, iv, pi. xciv ; Shaw, Gen. Zool. iv, p. 301 ;
Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 96; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 144, and Isis, 1828, p. 873;
Ekstr. Fische Morko, p. 247 ; Pallas, Zoog. Rus.-As. iii, p. 422 ; Nilsson, Skan.
Faun, iv, p. 618 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 88 ; Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 450 ; Schlegel,
Dier. Ned. p. 168, pi. xvi, f. 2 ; Mcintosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. R. S. Edin. v, 1862-66,
p. 614 and Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 180 ; Collett, p. 146 ; Malm, p. 530 ; Winther,
p. 41.

Platessa flesus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 198; Bowdich, Brit. F. W. Fish, no. 25 ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 455 ; Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835, p. 146 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish,
(ed. 1) ii, p. 215, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii. p. 303 (ed. 3) i, p. 612 ; Parn. Wern. Mem.
vii, p. 363, pi. xxxvii ; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411 ; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 174 ; Bonap. Pesc. Eur. 48; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 194; Siebold, Susswass. fische Mittleurope, p. 77; Kroyer, Dan.
Fiske, ii, p. 276, c. fig. ; White, Catal. p. 98 ; H. Malmgren, Wiegm. Arch. 1864,
p. 293 ; Blanchard, Poise. France, p. 267, c. fig.

ii 3

34 ANACANTHINI.

Varieties in colour.

Pleuronectes passer, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 459 ; Bloch, 1. c. p. 57, t. 1.

Pleuronectes roseus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. vii, p. 238, and Gen. Zool. iv, p. 302,
pi. 43.*

Platessa camaria, Brown, Edin. Journ. of Nat. and Geol. ii, p. 99, t. ii.

Platessa flesus, var. marmorata, Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Pise. pi. xxviii,
f. 1.

Flesus vulgaris, Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 299.

Varieties in form.

Platessa flesus, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 60, and Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. 1865 (3), xv, p. 361, pi. xviii.

Flounder, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 195, pi. clxxv.

B. v, D. 60-62, P. 10, V. 6, A. 39-45, C. 14, L. 1. 85, Ccec. pyl. 2, Vert.
12/23-24.

Length of head 4, of candal fin 5f , height of body 2^ in the total length.
Eyes less than 1 diameter apart, and the lower slightly in advance of the upper.
The eyes are so prominent that they are capable of observing objects on both sides
of the head. Lower jaw in advance of the upper. The length of the maxilla
equals about 1/4 that of the head, but does not reach to beneath the eyes. Anterior
nostril tubular, having a small opening : posterior one oval with wide lips. An
obtuse ridge passes from the interorbital space to the lateral-line. Teeth
conical, blunted, two rows in the upper and one in the lower jaw : the outer row
on the upper jaw of the blind side consists of 15 teeth ; the corresponding row in
the lower jaw of about 17. Fins dorsal commences opposite the middle of the
upper eye, its longest rays are in the posterior half of the body. Pectorals on the
two sides similar, and about 1/4 as long as the head. Ventrals free. A strong
spine, pointing forwards, exists before the base of the anal fin, which latter is
similar to the dorsal. Caudal cut square. Scales small, cycloid : rudimentary
ones on the cheeks. A rounded and rough tubercle between the bases of the
dorsal and anal rays. Lateral-line commencing opposite the angle of the mouth,
curves round the lower eye, and having joined the interorbital ridge, is continued
to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Ccecal pylori short. Colours vary
very considerably, and depend upon that of the ground of the locality which they
inhabit, but even then scarcely two will be found to be exactly similar. The
colour of the upper side is generally olivaceous-brown, with or without darker
blotches. Occasionally examples are very dark, when they are termed sea-
flounders. The under surface is white.

Young plaice and flounders of equal size may be distinguished, prior to the
appearance of tubercles along the bases of the dorsal and anal rays of the latter, by
the plaice having distinct scales, whereas they are rudimentary in the flounder.

Pleuronectes flesus, P. luscus, and P. Italicus are considered one species by
Steindachner (Site. Ak. Wiss. Wien. 1868, lvii, p. 719).

Varieties in colour. Double examples or such as are coloured on both sides
are not uncommon : also reversed ones. These last the fishermen persuaded
Donovan were a distinction of sex : Linna?us, Bloch, &c, considered such to be
distinct species. Some are partially or enth'ely albinos. Newman (Zool. xiii,
1855, p. 4596) records an albino-flounder with red eyes. " In 1862 an albino
variety was brought to me. Both sides were white, and the fins and eyes pink "
(Lowe, Norfolk Faun.). In some there are orange spots somewhat similar but
usually less vivid than seen in the plaice. On February 22nd, 1882, I obtained a
number from Brixham all having orange spots similar to the plaice, and was
informed that this is an appearance peculiar to spring-time. Thompson observes
that the examples he examined thus marked were taken in March. Some are of a
rosy hue, termed Pleuronectes roseus (Shaw) : or of a flesh-red, with irregularly but
distantly placed dark-coloured spots, Platessa camaria (Brown). Higgins (Zool.
xiii, 1855, p. 4596) remarks on one he terms Platessa melanog aster, notched above

PLEURONECTID^E. 35

the eyes and of a very dark brown colour almost black on botli sides. Newman
(1. c. p. 4914) continues that it is a favourite trick of the fisher boys to cut a notch in
the place indicated when they catch a flounder too small to be saleable. As the
notch heals the edges recede, so the dorsal fin appears to commence further back
than is normally the case. Whether this is the explanation of all such varieties
is questionable, as it may be due to an arrest of development as observed in
the plaice, turbot, &c. Thompson (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 60) refers to the
malformed head of one resembling Tarrell's brill.

Names. Flounder and mud-flounder: flounder lantern, Cornwall: fresh-water
fleulc and bigger fleuk, Moray Firth : mayoclc fleuk, Edinburgh : fleuk, Northumber-
land, also fleioke and fluck : butt, Yarmouth : sea bag ice, Isle of Man (Crellin) :
black back, Belfast Bay. Be Bot, Dutch. Be Flet commwn, French.

Habits. It is found round our coasts ascending rivers to far above tidal
influence, and is able to live in very impure water.

There is not much to say of its habits. Its name flounder has been asserted to
be derived from the Swedish word Flundi'a, denoting its swimming close to the
ground. Here it buries itself in the sand or soil by working down first one side
of the body and then the other, and thus its back becomes covered, while its
elevated eyes and mouth remain clear for the purpose of seeing and capturing its
prey. In some rivers it is found among stones, or on the side of sandy banks in
mid-stream ; but muddy holes are reputed not to be the places where it usually
resorts. It will wriggle itself up the sides of posts when under the water, as
may be seen any day at the Westminster Aquai'ium, and it retains its hold by
means of its vertical fins. It is a greedy and voracious feeder, eating worms,
slugs, crabs, young fish, and animal substances. Thompson found in one he
examined at Belfast, the remains of Bissoa vivas, and Johnston off Berwickshire
obtained from them Pecten obsoletus.

That this fish ascends into fresh water is very certain. If we turn to
Belonius, De Aquatilibus, published in 1553, we find the flounder described as
Passer fluviatilis, vulgo flesus. It is said by Bloch and others that this name
was given owing to its colour being similar to that of a sparrow, and because it
inhabited rivers. The flounder is found in the sea and at the mouths of all the
larger rivers round our coasts, and is common in the North Sea and Baltic.
Donovan observed that it inhabits both salt and fresh waters : Montagu that it is
taken in the Avon to within three miles of Bath : Yarrell that it exists in the
Thames as high as Sunbury : Parnell that it ascends rivers to a considerable
distance, particularly when the waters are discoloured and increased in size by
heavy rains. Personally I have a recollection of taking flounders with a worm,
about thirty years since, from the Severn at Shrewsbury, a little above the
English Bridge. Mr. Henry Shaw, the well-known naturalist of that town,
observes : " Flounders were caught thirty-five or forty years ago about Shrewsbury,
and a long way above, in considerable numbers : but since the weirs about
Worcester and Gloucester have been made, their ascent has been stopped. The
Peplows (fishermen) used to lay what they termed sprigtail lines for them, in
the early spring months, on the sandy places they frequented. This sprigtail
consisted of a crooked pin with a double bend, having the form of two knees ; to
this was affixed about four horse hairs, and baited with part of a worm. The
flounder swallowed it, and, as soon as he began to pull, the pin became crosswise.
They used to employ two to three hundred at a time on a long line, and lay them
at night time." Were the weii-s on the Severn destroyed, they would immediately
remount that river at least to as high as Shrewsbury.

Means of capture. Low observes that in the shallower parts of the loch of
Stenness he has seen vast numbers taken with a seine net. Thompson mentions
having observed a fisherman at the mouth of the Bann using an implement as
follows : it was in the form of two sides of a garden reel with a spike which
was stuck into the ground : to this about forty yards of line were attached, having
a very heavy sinker at its extremity, and hooks along its whole length, which
were baited with pieces of crab. By flinging out the sinker the line became
carried into the water its entire length.

3*

36 ANACANTHINI.

In November, 18G2, flounders at Gothenburg and its vicinity were so
abundant after a severe storm on the coast of Denmark that although 2-i millions
were captured the sea literally remained full of them : 500 men were engaged day
and night in this capture and at last they were unable to salt such a number.
Pontoppidan relates that when the fishermen row their boats over sandy ground
where the flounders are seen in clear weather lying in heaps together, they drop
a line with a heavy lead to it under which a little lance is fixed, which by the
weight of the lead sticks into the flounder, and it is pulled up with the line.

Baits. The angler finds a well-scoured lobworm much approved of, but they
will also take a piece of fish ; the novice has to be warned not to strike too soon,
as the worm is sucked in some little time prior to its being gorged, while, owing
to the size of the fish's mouth, a small hook has to be employed. In some
localities it is found to bite best in the early morning. It lives long after removal
from its native element, being very tenacious of life. This makes its carriage
and transference to distant places easy.

Breeding. It spawns from February to about April or even later. At
Mevagissey numerous young were observed in April. Harmer recorded finding
1,357,400 eggs in one 24j oz. in weight : 351,026 in a second of 6f oz. : 225,568 in
a third of 3^ oz. : and 133,407 in a fourth of 2| oz.

Life history. The development of the eyes of these fishes and the changes the
young undergo has been referred to at page 3.

Diseases. Lowe mentions having frequently seen specimens from the Ouse
" affected with a peculiar skin disease resembling epithelioma large fungous
growths cropping out over the whole body the granulations large and roe-like
under the microscope consisting of large nucleated cells."

This fish is largely eaten by the cormorant and other birds.

Uses. In Norfolk it is fished for in order to be used as a bait for the
lobster fishery (Lubbock).

As food. It is watery, poor eating, and inferior to the plaice, both as to
flavour and size ; but authors are not agreed as to whether the marine or river
forms are the best for the table, while it has been stated to be equally good from
both localities, the flavour depending on the food it has been living on. It is
considered nutritive and easy of digestion. Lacepede observes that its flesh is
softest in the fresh-water examples, due to their more rapid growth. In this
country such as come from the Thames are generally deemed firmest, and
superior to those from any other river. Memel, in the Baltic, has long been
celebrated for its flounders. The Frieslanders esteem this fish so much that
they naturalize it in fishponds. Thompson observes that is is not much esteemed
at Belfast. Low considered that if fried it is delicate eatinsr.

Habitat. From the coasts of northern Europe to those of the British Isles,
while off France it is common in the Channel and along Brittany, Poitou, the
Gulf of Gascogne and Arachon (Moreau).

This fish is abundant around the British coast and is especially partial to the
mouths of large muddy creeks : when not impeded by artificial or natural
obstructions it ascends rivers long distances. It inhabits all the bays and creeks
of the Orkneys, especially if the ground is flat and sandy : abundant in the Moray
Firth, ascending the Lossie nearly as high as Elgin (Gordon) : is pretty frequent
off Banff (Edward) : Aberdeen (Sim) : abundant at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh):
during July and August captured in large numbers in the Firth of Forth in the
salmon nets particularly above Queensferry, as well as in Leith harbour with the
hook (Parnell) : Berwick, common (Yarrell) : resident in Yorkshire along the
coast and rivers, in whioh its ascent is mostly stopped by weirs : every year in the
Babble from May to September : common in the Norfolk estuary : down the
east and along the south-west coast and Bristol Channel : common round the
coast of Ireland (Thompson).

It attains to about 8 or 9 inches in length and 4 lb. weight. Donovan recorded
one 4^ lb. and Pennant another of 6 lb.

PLEURONECTIDiE. 37

Genus VII Solea (Klein) Cuvier.

Monochir, Cuvier. MonocJiirus, Yarrell.

Cleft of mouth narrow, hoisted round to the left side. Eyes on the right side, the
upper being partially or entirely in advance of the lower. Nostrils variously formed.
Dentition most developed on the blind side, ivhere the teeth in the jaws are in
villiform rows, none on the vomer or palate. The dorsal fin commences on the snout,
and is not confluent with the caudal : pectorals present or absent. Scales small,
ctenoid. Lateral-line straight.

This genus has been subdivided :

A. Pectorals developed, Microbaglossus.

a. Nostrils on blind side not dilated, Solea.

b. One of the nostrils on the blind side dilated and broadly fringed, Pegusa.

B. Pectorals on both sides rudimentary or small, Buglossus.

C. Pectorals absent, Aseraggodes.

Geographical distribution. All temperate as well as tropical seas, except the
southern portion of the south temperate zone, and though normally a marine and
littoral form, still some enter fresh waters in which they have been acclimatized,
and thriven. On retaining some in fresh and others of a like weight in saline
water, the first at the end of a year were found to have increased at twice the
rapidity of those which were kept in salt water.

Among the flat-fishes annually captured around the British coast, none
exceed the sole in value as food, while they are esteemed both by rich and poor.
Their value is often enhanced by the locality they come from, thus Torbay,
Folkestone and other places are more or less famed for the quality of the fish
which are taken from their waters.

A most important subject, and one which deserves a more searching
investigation than it has yet received, is whether the fish are decreasing in
quantity around our coasts, and, if so, the reason ? To illustrate one side of this
question I give an extract from a letter from an east coast fisherman which speaks
for itself: "It is well known among fishermen that there is a falling off in the
supply of plaice and soles to an alaimiing extent, whatever may have been said to
the contrary by smack-owners and fish salesmen. To explain this, I shall have to
carry you back to the time when we first went to fish off the Sylt, about ten years
ago ; at which time very nearly all the ground from Horn Reef to Heligoland was
covered, as it were, with shoals of small plaice, and intermixed with these plaice
were a good many soles, both large and small. We have got as many as eighty
baskets of small plaice and ten baskets of soles for one night when we first went
there, and very nearly all the plaice would be thrown overboard, and you may be
aware that they always die after they have been hove on board a trawler. These
fish are so small that I have counted two hundred and fifty in one basket, such
as we use at Grimsby. The small plaice that are brought to London market
are the largest picked out, and then the others are thrown away. Now, we have
fished there every summer, heaving big bags of small plaice on board and throwing
them away for the sake of the soles, till by destroying the young brood, full-grown
plaice have grown very scarce. At the present time very small plaice will sell
well, so that now the soles have grown scarce off the Sylt, the small plaice, being
saleable, make up, so you see they are bound to be caught unless stringent
measures are taken for their preservation. You must remember that the
quantity has decreased during these last few years, twenty baskets being the most

38 ANACANTHINI.

you would get for a night now. My opinion of the matter is this, that as the
ground from Horn Reef to Langeroog, within a less depth than twelve fathomB, is
a natural nursery for young brood, if the wanton destruction of it continues as it
has done, we shall soon find it extremely difficult to find even a moderate supply
of full-grown plaice, but if stopped I have no doubt that both they and soles would
be more plentiful. It is to the interest and benefit of everyone in the fish trade
that no English trawler should be permitted to fish within the above depth."

Mr. Mann, writing from Bournemouth to the Field, in April, 1882, observed,
" I have just weighed a sole of one ounce, and a turbot of four ounces which
were exposed for sale here. They were selected from many others of like
size. Sixteen pounds' weight were captured on one occasion, the largest not
exceeding eight ounces. The bulk were taken in long-shore nets, known as
' tucks,' of small mesh, from which nothing can escape ; but this form of net
does not kill the fish, which ought to be at once returned to its native element."
Small turbots and soles are often placed in the bottom of the pads and boxes sent
to the London markets, but the bulk of them are sold in the towns and villages
along the sea coast.

It has again and again been brought prominently to notice, especially about
the fishing grounds of the North Sea, that the supply of soles taken in British
waters is yearly decreasing as evidenced by the trawlers having to go further out
to sea, that an increased number of vessels capture only an amount similar to what
formerly were obtained by fewer boats manned with less hands, and likewise that
the fish supplied to the markets consists of such as are much smaller than used to
be the case. Mr. E. Jex, of Billingsgate, remarked (January 7th, 1882), " there
have been during the past year some thousands of boxes of soles in this market
from Yarmouth, Lowestoft and Ramsgate, while not more than one-fourth of the
contents of each box consisted of fish that ought to have been caught three-fourths
of each box nothing but slips and tongues."

When at Weston-super-Mare in 1879 some new trawling ground was tried, and
the large size and quantity of these fishes that were taken amply recompensed the
trawlers. But such localities are often over-fished and soon become exhausted
and thus quantity has to be made up by those of a smaller size. This is possibly
what is found to occur in most places. Thus, Mr. Dunn observes, that his
father was the first fisherman who employed a beam trawl in Mevagissey Bay :
he captured enormous numbers of fish, so much so that he kept a record, which
has, unfortunately, been lost. When the Plymouth trawlers first commenced
their operations in new localities off the south-west coast (which was about the
time the Calif ornian gold-fields were discovered), they termed their new grounds
" California," as illustrating the amount and value of their captures.

It has been pointed out by Mr. Epton and others, that a large fleet of smacks
towing over the same ground will in a short time clear off the fish which are
there. But the main cause of the diminution in the North Sea is generally
asserted to be due to the numbers of undersized fish which are wantonly
destroyed in shallow water, or their natural brood-grounds by trawling smacks,
steam trawlers and shrimp catchers, more especially by smacks along the German
coast during the spring and summer months.

But while it has been proposed to legislate for this state of affairs by
prohibiting the exposure for sale of soles under 6 inches (7 inches, Buckland) in
length a difficulty arises which would first have to be investigated. Thus at
certain seasons the " thick-backed sole," Solea variegata, which rarely exceeds
6} inches in length, is common in the Plymouth markets, and perhaps finds its
way to London ; while the " little sole," Solea lutea, abounds along the south-
west coast, and is generally thrown overboard as useless, or sold as manure. Any
prohibition against the capture of soles under a certain size would cause taking
these forms to be penal. This opens up the question what, if these small forms
alone are permitted to increase off the south-west coast, will be the effect on the
food of the Pleuronectidce in general ? For should the useless forms be protected
and if they live on the same diet as the useful table sole, it appears as if such
legislation might cause more injury than benefit to the fisheries.

PLEURONECTID^. 39

Synopsis of Species.

A. Pectoral fins developed on hoth sides.

a. Nostrils on the blind side not dilated.

1. Solea vulgaris, D. 73-86, A. 61-73, L. 1. 160.

b. One of the nostrils on the blind side dilated and fringed.

2. Solea impar, D. 82-88, A. 67-71, L. 1. 130-140.

B. Pectoral fins on both sides verij small.

3. Solea variegata, D. 65-72, A. 53-57, L. I. 85.

4. Solea lutea, D. 65-72, A. 50-56, L. 1. 72.

A. Pectoral fins developed on both sides.
a. Nostrils on the blind side not dilated*

1. Solea vulgaris, Plate CVI.

Solea, Ovid, v. 124 ; Pliny, ix, c. 16 ; Klein, Pise. Miss, iv, p. 31, no. 1, and
p. 32, no. 2, tab. ii, f. 3. Buglossus sen Solea, Belonins, De Aquat. p. 145 ;
Rondel, xi, c. 11, p. 320 ; Gesner, Aquat. iv, pp. 666, 671, and Icon. Aquat. p. 101 ;
Schonev. p. 63 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 43, p. 235 ; Jonston, i, tit. 3, c. 2, a. 2, punct. 1,
p. 82 ; Willughby, Hist. Pise. p. 100, t. F 7; Ray, p. 33. Pleuronectes, sp. Artedi,
Synon. p. 32, no. 8, Genera, p. 18, no. 6, and Species, p. 60, no. 5 ; Gronov.
Zooph. no. 251 and Mus. i, p. 14. The Sole, Borlase, Cornwall, p. 266, pi. xxvi,
f. 2 ; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 231, and (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 311; Low,
Fauna Oread, p. 213 ; Couch, Fislies of the British Islands, iii, p. 200, pi. clxxvi.
La Sole Duhamel, iii, sect. 9, p. 257, pi. i.

Pleuronectes solea, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 457 ; Brunn. Ich. Mass. p. 34 ; Bloch,
Fische Deuts. ii, p. 42, t. xlv ; Bl. Schn. p. 146 ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 76, p. xli,
f. 160 ; Lacepede, iv, p. 623 ; Donovan, Brit. Fishes, iii, pi. lxii ; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 302 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 96 ; Fries and Ekstrom, Skand. Fisk. p. 165,
t. xxxix ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 89.

Solea vulgaris, Quensel, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1806, p. 230 ; Risso, Eur. Merid.
iii, p. 247 ; Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 197 ; Miss. Skand. Fauna, Fisk. p. 651 ;
Holb. Gotheb. Vet. Siillsk. Handl. iv, p. 56, c. fig. ; Gottsche, Wiegm. Arch. 1835,
p. 182 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 466 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 1) ii, p. 256, c. fig.
(ed. 2) ii, p. 347 (ed. 3) i, p. 657 ; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 378, and Fish.
Firth of Forth, p. 218; Bonap. Fauna Ital. Icon. p. 26, c. fig. ; Templeton, Mag.
Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 412 ; Costa, Faun. Nap. ii, p. 34 ; Canest. Arch. Zool. v,
p. 41, t. iv, f. 2; Johnston, Berwick. N. Hist. Club, 1838, i, p. 174; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 303 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 467, c. fig. ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish,
p. 105 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 205 ; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 651;
Schlegel, Dieren. Neder. p. 175, pi. xiv, f. 5 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 463; T. Ogilby,
Zoologist, 1876, p. 4755 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 54 ; Mcintosh, Fish.
St. Andrew's, p. 180; Collett, p. 148; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 41; Giglioli,
Pesc. Ital. p. 39 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 304.

Solea buglossa, Rafin. Indice, sp. 45.

Solea linnei, Malm, p. 532.

B. vii, D. 73-86 (97), P. 7, V. 5-6, A. 61-73 (83), C. 16, L. 1. 160, Vert.
9/39-40.

40 ANACANTHINI.

Length of head 5 to 5|, of caudal fin 7-j to 8, height of body 3 to 3]- in
the total length. Eyes the upper slightly in advauce of the lower : interorbital
space somewhat concave and exceeding 1 diameter of the eye in width. Jaws of
about the same length in front. Cleft of the mouth extends to beneath the middle
of the lower eye. Some short filaments on the snout and on the blind side of
the head. Nostrils on coloured side just in front of lower eye, the posterior
one patent with a thick lip on the upper side : the anterior one tubular.
On the blind side the anterior nostril is above the centre of the upper lip
and scarcely tubular : the posterior nostril is as far behind the anterior as the
latter is from the end of the snotit, it is patent with slightly elevated
edges. Teeth small, but distinct on the blind side. Gill-ralcers rudimentary.
Fins the dorsal commences in front of the upper eye. The two pectorals of the
same size, and 2\ in the length of the head. Ventrals free. Caudal rounded.
Scales ctenoid, and continued on to the fin-rays. Lateral-line straight. Colours
brown or gray on the coloured side, frequently blotched with black. Vertical
fins with a narrow, white, outer edge. Pectoral usually with a black blotch in its
outer half, which is very distinct in the young. " The colour of the sole depends
upon and varies according to the quality and depth of the feeding ground : (at
Weymouth) there are four prevailing varieties : (1) a dark sole ; (2) a shrub sole,
from the markings on the back having the appearance of shrubs ; (3) a lemon
sole ; and (4) a spotted sole. No. 1 is, I believe, caught in the shallowest water ;
no. 2 next ; and nos. 3 and 4 in the deepest water." (W. Thompson, Zool. 1851,
p. 3375.)

Steindachner I.e. observes that Solea azevia, Capello, from Portugal, is this
species.

Varieties. M. Capello states that examples from the coasts of Portugal vary in
the number of their fin rays from D. 85-95, A. 74-78 (Journ. Sc. Matt. phys. e. nat.
Lisbon, no. ii, 1867, p. 164). Near the mouth of the Ouse a variety is taken termed
cardine, its head is large and elongated, but its flesh is rather coarse. Reversed
examples are not rare (I obtained one from Brixham 14 inches long in January,
1881), neither are double ones or such as are coloured on both sides. On February
11th, 1881, 1 obtained from Brixham a double sole Hi inches in length, with the eyes
placed as normally in this species. There are also semi-albino or piebald specimens.

Thompson observes that those from the north of Ireland vary considerably in
form and colour, some being narrower than others, and tapering more towards the
tail. I obtained an example 12 inches long from Brixham in which the caudal
fin had been lost, and a new one formed continuous with the dorsal and anal.

Names. Sole, as the Greeks considered it would form a fit sandal for an ocean
nymph : slips, or tongues, the market terms for the young : also tongue-soles in the
Moray Firth, and lobsters in Suffolk. La sole commune, French. L>e Tong, Dutch.

Habits. Appears to prefer sandy or gravelly shores, and is retentive of life,
but rather uncertain in its migrations, for although mostly appearing at certain
spots almost at a given time, and usually decreasing in numbers by degrees : in
other seasons they disappear at once as suddenly as they arrived. " The finest
soles have been taken," observes Andrews (Zool. 1853, p. 3848), " in the Arun
River, miles above the tideway, and where they breed and remain throughout the
year." " In the estuary of the Humber," observes Mr. Eagle Clarke, "they are
captured from May until August inclusive, all are either in spawn or shotten. The
young are very numerous in the shallow water at the edge of the tides." Yarrell,
on the authority of a correspondent, remarks that they breed in the River Arun,
frequenting it from the mouth five miles upwards, which is nearly to the town of
Arundel, and remain in it the whole year, burying themselves in the sand during
the cold months. It is not unusual for them to ascend rivers to some distance,
while they will live and thrive in fresh water. Along our sea-coasts they retire to
the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the shallows about May if the weather is warm,
their migrations being influenced by temperature. Although very large examples
are occasionally taken in Lynn Deeps this fish, similar to the whiting, only attains
about 2/3 the size off Norfolk and Suffolk that it does off Devonshire.

PLEURONECTID^E. 41

In Ireland (October) Dr. Farran found Cardium elongation abundantly, a few
Bulla apart a, and a number of Echinocyamus pusillits. (November) Amphidesma
Boysii, a Dembalium, and a few Amphidesma prismatica. (December)
Amphidesma prismatica, a Lysteri, an Anomia, and Donax trunculus. The sole
lias been reputed to eat the eggs and fry of other fishes and sea urchins, &c.

Means of capture. Generally the trawl. The principal English trawling
ground lies from Dover to Devonshire. They may be taken by spillers, but are
not commonly captured with hooks : it is suggested that one reason may be that
spillers are mostly used by day, whereas the sole is a night feeder. In-shore
trawling, shrimping and fine meshed netting during the spring months occasion
great injury to the young of these fishes, as do also hose nets set for shrimps.
Mr. Welton, of Bridgewater, purchased all the fish taken in two of these nets in
one day, and thus obtained 18 cwt. of the fry of soles, plaice, herrings, whiting, &c.
Baits. Major Holland (Sc. Gossip, 18/2, p. 261) employs soft- or soldier-crabs,
lug-worm, mussel, shrimp and rag-worm, with long gut snoods, but these fish
feed mostly at night, and the most favourable time is after a blow, when the
water is thick, while a land breeze answers better than a sea breeze.

Breeding. They spawn late in the year and during the spring months. I have
obtained them in full roe this year up to April 15th. A sole of 1 lb. weight carries
about 134,000 eggs (Buckland).

Hermaphrodites. Have been recorded by Yarrell.

Life history. The very young swim on edge as has been already referred to,
but they do not appear to be commonly found so far out at sea as some other
species. They are first seen along our south coast about the end of March or
commencement of April.

Diseases. Buckland mentions having received a sole in which its entire lower
surface was studded with hairs from 1/8 to 1/2 an inch in length. On a
microscopic examination being made they turned out to be the hairs of the " sea
mouse," Aphrodite aculeata.

Uses. The skin of the sole was much used, according to Parnell, for fining
coffee, being found a good substitute for isinglass : also as a material for artificial
baits.

As food. The flesh of this fish is white, firm, and of excellent flavour, those
from the deepest waters being generally preferred : during the time of breeding,
and for a short period subsequently, they are soft and watery. Those on the west
coast and to the south are larger as a rule than those towards the north of these
islands. May hew tells us that London requires annually 97,520 soles, while that
market is principally supplied from the Norfolk coast and the English Channel.

Habitat. It extends from the seas of Scandinavia and the Baltic southwards,
round all the coasts of France, and is found in the Mediterranean.

It is taken in the Orkneys and Zetland, but is rare (Baikie) : it is not very
common off Banff (Edward) : but found off Aberdeen (Sim) : is common in the
Moray Firth, but not much sought after : frequent at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh) :
sparingly at the mouth of the Firth of Forth (Parnell). Resident and common
off Yorkshire. Has once occurred at Goode, in the estuary of the Humber, near
the mouth of the Ouse (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : the Great Grimsby fishermen
assert that they capture most of their small soles off the Dutch coast. Common
in the Norfolk estuary (Lowe) : abundant off the south coast from Sussex to
Devonshire, and common off Cornwall. Also found in the Bristol Channel, and
generally around Great Britain.

In Ireland soles occur all round the coast, while Ogilby observes that they are
common at Portrush, and Thompson remarks that those in the north vary
considerably in form and colour from those more to the south. As to the size it
attains Thompson's largest example was 20 inches in length. Mr. Grove, of Charing
Cross, received one from Torbay on February 1st, 1882, 24 inches long, and which
weighed 6|- lb. A correspondent of the Field alludes to one weighing 7\ lb.
captured at Bridgewater, on June 4th, 1881: and casts of a pair from Ireland
which weighed together 12 lb. are in the Buckland Museum. Yarrell mentions one
26 inches long and very thick, the largest he had ever heard of, which was brought
to the Totness market, and weighed 9 lb.

42 ANACANTHINI.

B. One of the nostrils on the blind side dilated and fringed.

2. Solea lascaris, Plate CVII.

Plexironectes lascaris, Risso, Icli. Nice, p. 311, pi. vii, f. 32.

? Pleuronectes nasuhis, Pall. Zoogr. Ross. -As. p. 427.

Solea impar, Bennett, Proc. Zool. Soc. i, p. 147 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 468.

Solea lascaris, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 249 ; Bonap. Fauna, Ital. Pesc. ;
Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 38, t. iv, f. 1 ; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 467 ; Canestr.
Faun. Ital. Pesc. p. 165 ; Morean, Poiss. France, iii, p. 307.

Solea pegusa, Tarrell, Zool. Journ. iv, pp. 467, 508, pi. xvi, Brit. Fish. (ed. 1)
ii, p. 260, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii, p. 351 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 467 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 206 ; White, Catal. p. 106 (not Lacep. or Risso).

Solea nasuta, Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. Zool. iii, Poiss. p. 536, pi.
xxxi ; Kessler, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 1859, pt. ii, p. 442 ; Richardson, in Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (ed. 3) i, p. 662 ; Steind. Ich. Span. n. Port. 1868, p. 58.

Solea aurantiaca, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 467 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868,
p. 58.

Lemon Sole, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isl. iii, p. 205, pi. clxxviii.

B. vii, D. (65) 82-88, P. 10, V. 5, A. (32) 67-71, C. 15, L. 1. 130-140. Vert.
46.

Length of head 5-*- to 6|, of caudal fin 8 to 8f, height of body 2f to 2|- in
the total length. Eyes the superior 1/2 in advance of the inferior : about 1^
diameters from the end of the snout, and about 1 diameter apart. This species
is rather thicker than S. vulgaris. Upper jaw slightly longer than the lower
but not produced into a lobe. The cleft of the mouth extends to beneath the
middle of the lower eye. Some filaments on the snout, very numerous on the
blind side of the head and also on the few first dorsal rays. Nostrils on the
coloured side tubular, the anterior one being the longer. One of the nostrils on the
blind side is nearly circular, very wide, and encircled by short and branched
filaments. Teeth distinct on the blind side. Fins the dorsal commences in
front of the upper eye : most of the fin-rays branched. The two pectoral fins
are equally long and 2\ in the length of the head. Gill-rakers absent or
exceedingly minute. Scales ctenoid, continued on to the fin-rays. The mucous
membrane of the gullet has longitudinal folds which are continued into the stomach :
the intestine beyond the pylorus is wider than the stomach : externally both
have several large papillas on them. Colours of an orange or lemon yellow,
marbled with darker and covered with numerous small black blotches and dots,
among which are some light or even white ones. Pectoral fin with a large black
blotch, surmounted by a light ring in its posterior half. Vertical fins of the same
colour as the body. In some examples the yellow colour is entirely lost after they
have been a few weeks in alcohol, leaving the fish gray marbled with darker.

Yarrell appears to have been the first British author who distinguished this
fish and considered it identical with Pleuronectes pegusa (Risso) : Jenyns, however,
observed that it is not Risso's fish, and appears to be undescribed by any foreign
authors. Richardson next located it as Pleuronectes nasutus (Pallas) : while
subsequently Dr. Giinther believed it to be undescribed and named it Solea
aurantiaca. It seems to be S. lascaris (Risso) as suggested by Moreau, and agrees
with S. lascaris (Bonap.) : while Steindachner identifies S. lascaris (Risso) with
S. scriba (Val.).

Names. The lemon sole from its colour : sarid-sole from the localities it
frequents : French sole. Borhame, Northumberland. Le Sole Lascaris, French.

Habits. Frequents sandy bottoms and appears to be captured throughout the
year, a good number were daily in the Cheltenham fish shops from April until
December, 1881, and January, 1882.

Means of capture. Usually by the trawl, it has been thought by some authors
that it prefers deeper water than the common sole.

PLEURONECTIM]. 43

As food. It is not in request for the table, being tasteless and wanting in
firmness, but is occasionally slipped in amongst such as have been prepared for
fi lletting at the fishmongers.

Habitat. From the shores of Great Britain and Ireland, through the
Mediterranean, and is found off Nice and Naples (Giglioli). Rare in Banffshire
(Edward) : Northumberland : resident and not uncommon in Yorkshire
(Yorkshire Vertebrata) : found off Sussex. Occasional in Devonshire (Parfitt) :
I have seen large numbers from Torbay : Weymouth two examples (Gosse, Zool.
1854) : rare in Cornwall (Cornish) : off Somersetshire (Baker) : occasionally
taken in the weirs at Swansea (Dillwyn).

In Ireland numerous examples were captured from one place off Galway in
1848.

It attains to 14 inches in length (Buckland) ; the one figured was from
Brixham, and measures 8^ inches.

B. Pectoral fins on both sides very small.
Solea variegata, Plate CVIII, fig. 1.

Pole panacliee, Duham. iii, sect. 9, p. 259, pi. ii, f. 3.

Pleuronectes variegatus, Donovan, Brit. Fishes, 1801, pi. cxvii.

Pleuronectes microchirus, Delaroche, An. Mus. xiii, 1809, p. 356, f. 2.

Monochir microchir, Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Guichen. Exp. Sc. Algeria, p. 107.

Pleuronectes mangili, Risso, Ich. Nice, 1810, p. 310.

Pleuronectes lingula, Hanmer in Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 313,
pi. xlviii.

Rhombus mangili, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 255.

Pleuronectes fasciatus, Narclo Naccari, Giorn. Fis. Pav. iii, Adr. Itt. p. 9.

Solea mangili, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Peso, iii, p. 27, c. fig. ; Canest. Arch.
Zool. i, p. 29, tav. iii, f. 3, Fauna d'ltal. p. 166.

Solea lingula, Jenyns, Manual, p. 468.

Monochirus lingula, Costa, Faun. Nap. ii, p. 50.

Monochirus variegatus, Thompson, An. Nat. Hist, ii, p. 404, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, pp. 207-211 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 1) ii, p. 262, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii,
p. 353, c. fig. (ed. 3) i, p. 664.

Microchirus lingula, Bonap. Pesc. Eur. p. 50, no. 429.

Monochir variegatus, White, Catal. p. 106.

Solea variegata, Flem. Brit. An. p. 197 ; Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist. vi. (1833)
p. 530; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 469; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 60;
Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 39.

Microchirus variegatus, Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 317.

Variegated sole, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 203, pi. clxxvii.

B. vii, D. 65-74, P. r. 4-5, 1. 2-3, V. 5, A. 55-58, C. 15, L. 1. 85-90, Vert. 10/30.

Length of head b\ to h\, of caudal fin 6|- to 7, height of body 3^ to 3^ in the
total length. Eyes on the right side, scarcely half a diameter apart, and 1
diameter from the end of the snout. The upper eye one-half in advance of the
lower : interorbital space scaled, anterior nostril tubular. Teeth very minute.
Fins dorsal commences above the front edge of the upper eye, and nearly
reaches the base of the caudal fin, its rays are branched and the highest are
opposite the middle of the length of the body. Right pectoral fin very short,
not equalling the length of the orbit : left pectoral still more minute. Ventral
not attached to anal, which latter fin terminates similarly to the dorsal. Caudal
somewhat rounded at its extremity. Scales ctenoid extending on to the fin rays.
Lateral-line nearly straight. Free portion of the tail about three times as high
as long. Colours of a rich chestnut brown with six or seven vertical dark bands
which are a little more than one-third the width of the interspace between each.
These bands become broken up with advancing age, but may even be seen in large
specimens mostly as dark marks at the bases of and passing on to the dorsal and

44 ANACANTHINI.

anal fins. Caudal with a dark band in its last third, having a light outer edge.
Dorsal and anal fins usually edged with white.

Thompson observes Solea lingula and S. variegata are brought together as
synonymous by Yarrell and Jenyns. " In placing individuals together the most
obvious differences appear in the dark blotches and transverse bands of S.
variegata contrasted with the comparatively uniform tint of 8. lingula : the scales
of 8. variegata are very much smaller and its eyes being relatively to each other
placed more vertically : in the dorsal and anal fins being rather more distant from
the caudal fin : and in the general form of the body, which tapers less towards the
tail : the rays too of the dorsal and anal fins are considerably fewer in number
than in 8. lingula." The Banksian copy of Pennant has the following MS.
remark : " This fish is sometimes taken at Torbay in the trawling nets. It differs
at first sight from the common sole in the edges of the scales being strongly
ciliated, and in wanting the numerous small beards that hang from the lower side
of the head of the common sort." This appears to be the "red-back " described
from E. Hanmer's MS. in the 1812 edition of Pennant (iii, p. 313, pi. xlviii) but
there is no reference to this figure (P. Z. S. 1849, p. 83).

Names. Thichback, Devonshire, so termed owing to its being thicker than the
common sole : bastard sole, Weymouth. It was first observed from our coast by
Donovan, in April, 1807, when it was brought to Billingsgate market.

Habits. On the south coast of Great Britain it appears in the spring and
continues through most of the year.

Means of capture. Trawling, and is often taken in very great numbers along
the south coast.

As food. Largely consumed in Devonshire and Cornwall where it is held in
great estimation.

Habitat. From the British coasts to France and the Mediterranean, and
common off Italy (Giglioli) : frequent along the coasts of France and extends into
the Mediterranean, Trieste (Giglioli). Met with occasionally off Banff (Edward) :
off Rothsay and the Isle of Bute in Scotland (Scouler) : in October, 1851, Mr.
Hussey (Zool. p. 3282) observed upon many having been captured at Brighton,
one pair weighing upwards of 6 lb. : but Mr. Thompson (Zool. p. 3375) says they
were merely varieties of the common sole, continuing, " the true variegated sole
I have never seen exceed 5|- inches (French measure) and I have seen twenty
pairs at a time and not half-an-inch difference in the whole lot, and many of them
had roe. They are called here (Weymouth) ' bastard soles.' " During August,
1881, 1 found they were being landed in thousands at Plymouth from the trawlers
and sold as " thickbacks," they had been captured during at least the three
previous months. Mr. Dunn, in the last week in February, 1881, forwarded
to me one with the information that they were being taken near Plymouth in
hundreds, averaging about six to a pound, and were being sold in pads separated
from the other soles as offal.

In Ireland one was dredged at Belfast, June 16th, 1838, by Mr. Drummond,
and in Ventry harbour it is not uncommon (Andrews) .

The example figured is 6^- inches long, and was obtained at Plymouth, it
attains to 9 inches in length according to Buckland.

4. Solea lutea, Plate CVIII, fig. 2.

Solea parva s. lingula, Rondel, xi, c. 15, p. 324 ; Gesner, Aquat. iii, lib. iv,
p. 669 ; Aldrov. ii, c. 43, p. 237 ; Jonston, Pise, ii, lib. 1, tit. 3, c. 2, a. 2, punct. i,
p. 58 ; Willughby, p. 102, t. F 8, f . 1 ; Klein, Pise. Miss, iv, p. 32, no. 4. Solonette,
Duhamel, iii, sect. 9, p. 258, pi. ii, f. 1, 2.

Pleuronectes luteus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 312.

Rhombus luteus, Risso, Europ. Merid. iii, p. 257.

MonocMrus minutus, Parnell, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1837, c. fig. and Mag.
Zool. and Bot. i, 1837, p. 527, c. fig. '

Monochirus linguatulv.s, Cuv. Rcgne Anim. ; Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist, ii,

PLEURONECTID^E. 45

p. 405, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 206 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 2) ii, p. 355,
c. fig. (ed. 3) i, p. 666 (not PI. linguatula, Linn.).

Solea lingida, Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 468 ; Thompson, Proc. Z. S. 1837,
p. 58, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 206.

Pleuronectes trichodactylus, Naccari, Ich. Adri. p. 11.

Monochirus luteus, Costa, Faun. Nap. ii, p. 49; Bonap. Catal. no. 428 ; Moreau,
Poiss. France, iii, p. 316, c. fig.

Synaptura lingida, Kaup, Wiegm. Arch. 1858, p. 97.

Solea lutea, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. c. fig. ; Canest. Arch. Zool. i, p. 32, tav.
3, f . 4, Fauna Ital. p. 167 ; Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 469 ; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 60.

Monochir linguatula, Swainson, Fish, ii, p. 303 ; White, Catal. p. 107.

Solea minuta, Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 470; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrew's, p. 180;
Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 61.

Solonette, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 207, pi. clxxix.

B. viii, D. 65-72, P. r. 5, 1. 3, V. 5, A. 50-56, C. 19, L. 1. 72.

Length of head 4|- to 4f , of caudal fin 6 to 6|, height of body 3j in the total
length. Eyes on the right side, rather close together, the upper being one-third
in advance of the lower. Cleft of mouth extends to beneath the middle of the
lower eye. Anterior nostril tubular. Teeth pointed and minute. Fins Dorsal
commences on the snout before the upper eye and ceases close to the base of the
caudal fin, its rays are branched and the highest are opposite the middle of the
length of the body. Right pectoral very short, its upper ray twice as long as the
others, left pectoral still more minute. Ventral rays two-thirds as long as the
first few of the anal fin, which latter terminates similarly to the dorsal. Caudal
somewhat rounded at its extremity. Scales ctenoid extended on to the fin rays.
Lateraldine nearly straight. Colours right side of a stone gray covered with
numerous small brown or dark spots, also three or four rows of moderately sized
dark blotches placed very wide asunder, but sometimes entirely wanting. Dorsal
and anal fins colourless, but every here and there a ray (from the fourth to the
seventh) quite black, portions of others also dark, and some dark spots along the
bases of these fins. Caudal spotted. Pectoral with a black blotch in its centre.
Some of the specimens described by more than one author as belonging to this
species, appear to be small examples of the " variegated sole."

Varieties. If the colours shown in Couch's figure are correct, are the
proportions such as he copied from nature ? I think he must have had some
other species under his eye than S. minuta.

Names. Little sole : Bed sole. Le Microdrive Jamie, French.
Habits. Appear to resemble those of the " variegated sole."
Means of capture. Trawling.

Uses. Parfitt observes (Fauna of Devon, p. 28), " sometimes taken in large
numbers in the trawl nets : but as they are of no use for the market they are
thrown again into the sea."

Habitat. From the shores of Great Britain and Ireland to those of France
and through the Mediterranean. Off Banffshire it is more common than the
"lemon sole" (Edward): common at St. Andrew's (Mcintosh). Reputed to
have been taken at Whitby (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : common at Weymouth
(P. Gosse) : Mr. Cornish records (Zool. 1873, p. 3697) capturing a star-fish in
August, holding one of these fishes, three inches in length, in its feelers. An
example was captured in November, 1880, ten miles at sea off Mevagissey, and
sent to me by Mr. Dunn.

In Ireland it is taken on the N.E., E., S. and West coasts. Ball obtained it
in Dublin : McCoy observed (Ann. and Mag. 1841, vi, p. 408) that he found it
tolerably abundant in the Bay between the lightship and the harbour : McCalla
took it in county Down, and Thompson mentions three dredged off Dundrum in
the same county.

The example figured, life size, came from Mevagissey : the largest specimen I
have obtained is 4j inches in length, but it is said to reach to 5 inches.

4G PHYSOSTOMI.

Order HI PHYSOSTOMI, Mutter.

All the fin rays articulated, with the exception of the first in the dorsal and
pectoral, which are frequently more or less ossified (some genera belonging to the
family Sternoptychidse have a rudimentary first dorsal fin). Ventral fin when
present abdominal and spineless. Air-bladder when existing having a pneumatic
duct (except in the family Scombresocidae).

Family, I STERNOPTYCHIDiE.

Margin of the upper jaw formed partly by the premaxillaries and partly by
the maxillaries, both of which are provided with teeth. Opercular bones not
fully developed. Gill opening wide: pseudobranchise present or absent. An
adipose dorsal fin may be present or rudimentary. Body scaleless or scaled.
Rows of round luminous bodies along the lower surface of the abdomen, and
occasionally some also on various parts of the body and head. Air-bladder when
present, simple. Eggs enclosed in the sac of the ovaries, and excluded by
oviducts.

These fishes are all of small size and appear to be mostly pelagic, 'while some
may be abyssal forms.

This family has been subdivided into three groups by Dr. Giinther, who,
however, failed to detect scales in Maurolicus, in which genus they are present,
but deciduous. The divisions would consequently have to be altered as follows :

Group A. Pseudobranchise present: a rudimentary spinous dorsal fin
Scaleless. StemoptycMna.

1. Argyropelecus. A single row of teeth in the jaws.

Group B. Pseudobranchise present : no spinous dorsal fin. Scaled. Coccia.
2. Maurolicus. Lower jaw prominent.

Group C Pseudobranchise absent : no spinous dorsal fin. Scaled. Chauliodontina.

The two forms of this family, Argyropelecus and Maurolicus, which have been
obtained off the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, in common with some other
pelagic forms found elsewhere, possess eye-like spots of a circular form which
are either impressions or prominences on the skin. Their uses have been a
fertile subject for speculation, and possibly much still remains to be discovered.
MacCulloch remarked that considering at a depth of 800 or 1000 feet, the
light of the sun ceases to be transmitted in the ocean, it may be that animal
luminousness is a substitute for that light, and if so these organs would take the
place of minature lanterns. Professor Reinhardt observed of Astronethes Fieldii,
Val., which is common in the Atlantic Ocean between 23 and 6 north latitude,
that in two instances he captured the fish alive, when he saw that it sent forth two
strong and vivid greenish lights, which intermitted momentainly and ceased
altogether when the fish died (Zool. 1854, p. 4300). Dr. Guppy (Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist. March, 1882, p. 202) remarked that on November 7th, 18bl, latitude

STERNOPTYCHID^E. 47

35 17' south, longitude 17 43' east, two Scopeli were caught; one had some life
remaining and displayed a faint, though an undoubted luminosity in the pearly
bodies of the pectoral region : direct irritation had no effect. Professor Leuckart,
in 1865, suggested whether some at least might not be regarded as accessory organs
of sight, a position shown by Leydig to be untenable. In 1879 Dr. Ussow (Bull.
Soc. Moscow, liv, 1879, p. 79) of St. Petersburgh, remarked that among these fish
belonging to seven genera which he had examined these organs could be arranged
in two series : the first he regarded as constituting accessory eyes, the second as
special glandular organs. Leydig, in 1881 (Die augen. Organe der Fische, Bonn.),
added another group, viz., mother-of-pearl like organs, which are not sensory in
function, and he considers they bear the closest resemblance to the electric, or
pseudo-electric organs of other fishes, with probably a secondary illuminating
function.

Group A. Pseudobranchias present. A rudimentary spinous dorsal fin. Body

scaleless.

Genus I Argyropelecus,* Cocco.

Pleurothysis, Lowe.

Branchiostegals nine : pseudobranchwe present. Head large, it and the trunk
elevated and very compressed, the latter passing suddenly into the tail which is
narrow. Eyes large, directed upwards arid outwards, separated by a very narrow
interspace. Cleft of mouth vertical and deep, with the lower jaw prominent. The
margin of the upper jaw is formed of the premaxillary and maxillary, ivhich have a
single roio of fine teeth, a row also in the lower jaw. First dorsal short, preceded by
an osseous plate formed from neural spines: adipose dorsal, if present, rudimentary.
Pectorals well developed. Ventrals small. Gill-openings wide : gill-rakers long.
Body covered tvith a silvery pigment but no distinct scales. Humeral arch and pubic
bones prolonged into flat, pointed processes, which project along the median line of
the abdomen, intermediate between ivhich are some scutes. Air-bladder present.
Four pyloric appendages.

Examples of this genus are said to have been dredged in the Challenger
expedition at 1100 fathoms, a statement upon which discredit has been thrown.
In the Mediterranean it would appear not to be found at very great depths, and
may be a night feeder, at which time it ascends to the surface as is seen in the
Scopelidce.

Geographical distribution. Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean. One species
has been found off the coast of Norway.

1. Argyropelecus hemigymnus, Plate CIX, fig. 1.

Argyropelecus hemigymnus, Cocco, Griorn. Sc. Sic. 1829, fasc. lxxvii, p. 146 ;
Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. ; Cuv. and Val. xxii, p. 398 ; Giinther, Catal. v, p. 385,
and Ann. and Mag. (4) 1874, xiii, p. 139; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 119; Moreau,
Poiss. France, iii, p. 498 ; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 39.

Sternoptyx Mediterranea, Cocco, Giorn. il Faro, 1838, iv, p. 7, f . 2 ; Bonap.
1. c. c. fig.

Sternoptyx hemigymnus, Cuv. Reg. Anim. 111. Poiss. pi. ciii, f. 3.

B. ix, D. 6 + 7-8, P. 10, V. 6, A, 11-12, C. 19.

The greatest height of the body equals half the total length. Posterior to the
vent the caudal portion of the body becomes abruptly narrowed, while it is
everywhere compressed, its greatest width merely equalling 1/4 of its height.
Caudal fin 1/5 of the total length. Eye high up, directed outwards and slightly

* From some error, Agaseiz thought this might he the young of Zeus faber.

48 PHYSOSTOMI.

upwards. The interorbital space very narrow, 1 diameter distance from the end
of the snout, and a like distance from the posteinor end of the head. Posterior
inferior angle of preopercle, with two triangular spines, the upper directed
backwards, the lower downwards. Cleft of mouth deep, the lower jaw projecting
beyond the upper, and the posterior angle of the maxilla armed with a triangular
spine. Gill-rakers very long. Teeth in a single row of somewhat incurved
ones, largest in the mandible. Those in the premaxillaries are directed somewhat
backwards, as are also a patch in the contiguous and posterior part of the maxilla,
but those in the posterior half of this latter bone are directed upwards. Fins the
dorsal consists of two portions, the anterior being prolongations of about 6 neural
spines, the last two being the longest and largest, they are connected together by
a thin plate : the rayed portion is higher than the first part : a rudimentary adipose
dorsal fin is sometimes present. Pectoral rather longer than the head : ventral small,
anal somewhat similar to the rayed part of the dorsal : caudal forked. Skin of the
body covered with a silvery pigment, while in various places it possesses what have
been termed eye-like spots, one anterior to the eye, usually two behind it, six
smaller ones on the throat and branchiostegous rays, and six larger ones on the
chest and humeral arch : twelve along the pubic plate, and eight on a line a little
above this commencing above the axilla, the two anterior of which are the largest.
Near the lower edge of the body and behind the ventral fin are four large ones,
the last almost reaching the base of the anal, and six more over the last half of
the base of the anal fin. Colours the body brilliant silvery, the tail portion
yellowish. A few black spots on the head and an irregular band along the base of
the dorsal fin. On the side of the tail above the hind edge of the anal fin are two
small silvery spots, with fine black bars radiating from them : a black band at the
base of the caudal fin. As a rule the eye-like spots along the lower edge of the
body have a black edge.

Habits. Of these but little is known.

Breeding. Eggs large.

Habitat. Atlantic and Mediterranean.

An example in the British Museum is stated to have been dredged in 540
fathoms, between Shetland and the Faroe Islands by the Porcupine, along with
several other Mediterranean forms in 1869.

STERNOPTYCHIL\E. 49

Group B. PseudobranchiaB present: no spinous dorsal fin. Scaled.

Genus II Maurolicus, Cocco.

Gonostomus, sp. Cocco. Ichthyo coccus, sp. Bonaparte.

Branchiostegals eight or nine : pseudobranchice well developed. Body oblong, it
and the head compressed. Cleft of mouth deep and oblique, lower jato prominent.
Maxilla large and wide. Eyes of medium size. Teeth in a single row in the jaws.
Gill-opening wide : gill-rakers very long. Dorsal fin in the posterior half of the
body, also a rudimentary adipose Jin. Pectoral and ventral present. Anal fin long,
commencing on a line posterior to the termination of the first dorsal, its last rays are
concealed by shin. Caitdal forked. Scales very deciduous and large, covering the
body : one or two rows of luminous spots along the lower side of the head, body and
tail. Coecal appendages in moderate numbers.

These fishes appear to belong to the pelagic fauna, and as a rule are only
captured off our shores subsequent to considerable disturbances in the deep sea.
Daring the early part of this year (1882) storms were unusually prevalent, and
Mr. Sim obtained from the beach at Aberdeen about 170 examples. As corrobora-
tive proof it may be mentioned that Trachypterus arcticus was thrown on shore on
February 16th near Berwick, another on April 17th near Flamborough, and four
days subsequently a third at Burghead. On Api'il 15th an example of Begalecus
Banhsii came ashore in the Firth of Forth, while during the month of April
I heard of four specimens of Lcemargus borealis being captured, one in the Firth of
Forth and the three others off Aberdeen. The largest of the examples of Maurolicus
obtained by Mr. Sim in 1881 had fully developed ova, and they may have been
approaching the shore for breeding purposes, because all the large examples of the
170 taken at the same period this year show developed ova and milt ready for
shedding : or they may have been on the surface of the sea for this purpose, and
so come within the influence of storms.

Miiller considei'ed the structure of the jaws of this genus Scopeloid, most
correctly observing that the premaxillaries reach to the angle of the mouth, and
it is only beyond that angle that the toothed maxillary appears.

1. Maurolicus Pennantii, Plate CIX, fig. 2.

Sheppy Argentine, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 327, pi. lxv (Ed. 1812)
iii, p. 432, pi. lxxvi ; Low, Fauna Oread, p. 225.

Argentina Pennantii, Walb. Artedi, 1792, iii, p. 47.

Argentina sphyra?na, Turton, Brit. Fauna, 1807, p. 105 ; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 177,
pi. lxxiii, f. 301 (not Linn.).

Serpe Humbolti, Risso, Ich. Nice, 1810, p. 358, pi. x, f. 38.

Scopelus Humbolti, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 467 ; Cuv. Regne Anim. t. ii,
p. 315 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) ii, p. 94, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 161, and
Mag. Nat. Hist. 1838 (2) ii, p. 25 ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 433 ; Clarke, Mag.
Nat. Hist. 1838 (2) ii, p. 22, c. fig. ; De Kay, Fauna New York, Fish. p. 246,
pi. xxxviii, f. 121.

Scopelus borealis, Nilss. Obs. Ich. p. 9, and Skand. Fauna, Fiske, p. 479 ; Cuv.
and Yal. xxii, p. 438; Thompson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1847, p. 171, and
Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 175; Gunther, Catal. v, p. 389; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 150.

Maiirolicus ametlvystino.punctatus, Cocco, Lett. s. Salmon, 1838, p. 32, t. iv.
f. 12; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. c. fig.; Gunther, Catal. v, p. 390 ; Canestr. Faun.
Ital. p. 120; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 509; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. p. 40.
ii. 4

50 PHYSOSTOMI.

Scopelus Pennantii, Cuv. and Val. xxii, p. 436 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) i,
p. 330 ; White, Catal. p. 82.

Scopelus maurolici, Cuv. and Val. xxii, p. 439.
Maurolicus Miilleri, Krdyer, Dan. Fisk. iii, p. 113.
Argentina hehridica (pt.) Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 203.
Argentine, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 301, pi. ccxxxiii.

B. ix, D. 10 (f), P. 16, V. 7, A. 10 + 12 + 4-13, C. 19, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 6, Ccec.
pyl. 8, Vert. 32.

Length of head 4 to 4^, of caudal fin 6^- to 7j, height of body 5 to 5 (4j in the
young) in the total length. Eye diameter 2f- to 3^ in the length of the head,
3/4 to nearly 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and rather more than half a
diameter apart : interorbital space concave from side to side, with a ridge running
down its centre. Body and head compressed : the greatest width of the body does
not quite equal half its height. Cleft of mouth deep, the maxilla wide and
reaching to below the middle of the orbit : lower jaw prominent. Teeth fine
ones in a single row in both jaws, none on the vomer or palate. Fins the rayed
dorsal commences midway between the hind edge of the eye and the base of the
caudal fin : its highest rays rather exceed one-half the height of the body below the
fin : the adipose dorsal is very rudimentary, being apparently absent in some
examples. Pectoral about half as long as the head. Ventral about as long as one
diameter of the orbit, and inserted on a vertical line almost immediately beneath
the first dorsal ray, and not quite reaching the insertion of the anal. The anal
fin arises on a line somewhat posterior to the base of the last dorsal ray : the first
ten rays are somewhat similar to, but rather shorter than, those in the dorsal fin,
the succeeding ones are smaller, and the last few in some specimens again increase
in size, but owing to their fragility, and being imbedded among the muscles and
scales, it becomes extremely difficult to ascertain their numbers : in some I have
only been able to discover about 26 in all : in the fine example figured there seem
to be 33. Scales cycloid, higher than wide, very deciduous, but distinct : although
in the British Museum catalogue it is remarked that there are no regular scales,
this is due to their having been abraded, leaving the subjacent silvery pigment
visible : still even in the Redcar specimens some can be seen if a magnifying glass
is employed. Luminous spots, not elevated but level with the surface of the
skin, are very distinct, one on the preorbital, one beneath the chin, one at the
posterior angle of the lower jaw : six on the branchiostegal rays : six on the chest,
in a line terminating posteriorly at the upper part of the base of the pectoral fin :
twelve along the lower edge of the abdomen between the humeral arch and the
base of the ventral fin : parallel to this last row and commencing at the upper
edge of the base of the pectoral fin, and terminating above the base of the ventral
are eight more : six more in a single row between the bases of the ventral and
anal fins : fifteen along the base of the anal, and eight more along the lower edge
of the body between that fin and the caudal : over the commencement of the anal
fin exists a single spot a little higher up than the anal row. Stomach ccecal, with
longitudinal well developed ruga? : in those opened no food existed, but small
gravel was present in the mouth and fauces : eight large and rather long ccecal
appendages : intestines making only two curvatures : testicles and ovaries very
long, reaching almost the entire length of the abdominal cavity. Pseudobranchia?
well developed. Colours back of a glossy brown or black, with, during life, two
zig-zag lighter lines along either side of the back : sides of the head and body of
a burnished silvery lustre : a dark band just before the base of the caudal fin : a
black mark at the base of most of the luminous spots.

Varieties. I have examined numerous examples and find that the number of
rays in the anal fin may vary from twenty-six to thirty-seven, owing I suppose to
injuries due to friction. No other essential differences being apparent, these
scarcely appear sufficient to constitute distinct species. The height of the body
in small examples is considerably greater in proportion than that in larger ones.
Hutton (Trans. New Zealand Inst, vii, p. 250. pi. xi, f. 90 cl) described Maurolicus
Australis, from examples captured at Milford Sound and Cuttle Cove, New

STERNOPTYCHIDiE. 51

Zealand, and which he doubtfully separated from M. borealis. Dr. Giinther (An.
Nat. Hist. (4) xvii, p. 399) having examined a specimen pronounced it to be
Maurolicus amethystino-punctatus, Cocco, from the Mediterranean. Hutton, 1. c.
viii, p. 215, states that it is a Gonostoma. The figure gives the impression that
the fish is Maurolicus Pennantii.

Navies. Pennant first termed this fish the Sheppy argentine, the latter
designation gave rise to great inconvenience due to its not being an " argentine."
Yarrell proposed the unobjectionable name of " Pearl sides."

Habits. Of these but little is known. During their breeding season, or from
January until May, they are thrown on our shores in varying numbers and in
proportion to the violence of the weather, and it is only in the examples obtained
by Higgins in Somersetshire that we possess a record of their capture so late in the
season as July.

Means of capture. Generally it is thrown on shore by the violence of the sea.

Breeding. As the ova, which are large, were ready for shedding in examples
captured in February and the milt was similarly forward, it appears that off
Scotland they must breed during the earlier portion of the year.

Habitat. From the coasts of Scandinavia, to the British Isles, shores of France
and through the Mediterranean : off Italy, Giglioli observes, it is rare, but
obtained at Niza, and Messina in July and September.

Low states that his single example from the Orkneys was given him by
a boy, who found it at the edge of the water among the sea ware, since then
several specimens have been procured by Dr. Duguid and Mr. Heddle (W. Baikie,
Zool. 1853) : Mr. Peach recorded it from Wick : Edward remarked that it is
a regular winter visitant off the Banff coast, being never absent during January,
and from 1 to 3 inches in length : Mr. Sim h is collected for me at Aberdeen
during the last two winters nearly two hundred examples, it being cast on the
beach in great abundance during the months of January, February and March :
four specimens up to nearly 2 inches in length were taken in April, 1833, from
the Firth of Forth (Clarke, 1. c.) : two or three specimens are in the Glasgow
Museum : Mr. Rudd first obtained this fish at Redcar in May, 1841 : in 1843 he
found thirteen specimens : in February, 1851, four : and in February and March,
1852, forty (Zool. 1852, p. 3504) : it has been taken off Devonshire as recorded
by Walcott (Yarrell) : Higgins obtained three specimens at Weston-super-Mare in
the month of July (Zool. 1861, p. 7317) : Pennant's specimen came from sea at
Downing, off Flintshire.

Its capture in Ireland has been reported March 11th, 1847, at Killiney Bay,
near Dublin (Thompson, Ann. and Mag. 1847, p. 171).

The example figured life-size was taken at Aberdeen by Mr. Sim.

Note. Paralepis. Dunn observes, " one of this genus was driven en shore alive by porpoises
at Polkerris, near Par, June 2nd, 1869. I sent it to Mr. Couch, who says it is the first known in
England. Its length was about 14 inches, depth lg inches. The sides of the fish were of an uniform
silvery colour. It was covered with scales, but so delicate that they came off on being
handled."

4*

52 PHYSOSTOMI.

Family II SALMONIDJE, Midler.

Pseudobranchise present. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the premaxillaries
and maxillaries. No barbels. Anteriorly a rayed dorsal fin, and posteriorly an
adipose one. Pyloric appendages as a rule present, and usually numerous. Body
scaled. Head scaleless. Air-bladder large, simple, and with a pneumatic duct.
The ova pass into the cavity of the abdomen before being extruded.

Geographical distribution. Marine and freshwater forms, some of the former
being exclusively inhabitants of the deep sea, others again being anadromons,
periodically ascending rivers in order to deposit their spawn. Normally they are
confined to the Arctic and temperate portions of the northern hemisphere, with the
exception of one species which has been found existing in New Zealand. Some
of the genera among the salmonoids furnish most valuable food to the human race r
consequently it has been an object to extend their range into the waters of distant
lands. In introducing exotic fishes, one of the first considerations must necessarily
be to ascertain whether any representatives of the family are normally resident in
the region it is desired to stock, and if they are whether the race is a thriving or
a diminutive one ; for it has been maintained that if the latter the chances of
success are too small to render the attempt worth making, as the region is probably
unsuited for their development. By retarding the germination of the ova by
means of ice (see Introduction), eggs of salmonidse have been safely carried to
Tasmania and elsewhere, and the races successfully introduced. In 1866 I
attempted to similarly convey trout into the waters of the table lands on the
Neilgherries and adjacent hills in Madras. These mountain ranges embrace a
geographical area extending over 268,494 square miles : their peaks vary from
5000 to 8000 feet above the sea, and Ootacamund, where the experiment was tried,
is 7426 feet above the sea-level, with an annual mean temperature of 58 68'.
Although I failed, two years subsequently Mr. Mclvor succeeded by bringing out
the young fish from Scotland, and they have bred in their new home, enabling me
to give a figure in the third part of my Fishes of India, published August, 1877,
taken from an Indian born trout.*

Synopsis of Genera.

1. Sahno. Maxillary long : dentition strong and complete. Scales small. Anal
rays in moderate numbers (14 or less). Pyloric appendages numerous.

2. Osmerus. Maxillary long : dentition complete, with fang-like teeth on the
vomer and tongue. Scales of medium size. Pyloric appendages few.

3. Coregonus. Maxillary short : teeth if present minute. Anterior dorsal fin
with few rays. Scales of moderate size. Pyloric appendages numerous.

4. Thymallus. Maxillary short : small teeth in the jaws, vomer, and on the
palatine bones. Anterior dorsal fin many rayed. Scales of moderate size. Pyloric
appendages numerous.

5. Argentina. Maxillary short: teeth absent from jaws. Anterior dorsal fin with
few rays. Scales rather large. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

* On recording; my first failure. Dr. Giinther as editor of the Zoological Kecord, remarked,
as " has been foreseen by all acquainted with the nature of salnionoid fishes." And since it succeeded,
in his "Introduction to the Study of Fishes," 1880, p. 641, he has observed "the attempt of
transferring them into the low streams of India ended (as could be foreseen) in a total failure."

SALMONID^E. 53

Genus I Salmo, Artedi-

Fario and Solar, Cuvier : Trutta and Salvelini, Nilsson.

Branchiostegals nine to thirteen; pseudobranchiaz present. Eyes lateral. Cleft
o/ mouth deep, the posterior extremity of the tipper jaw reaching to beneath the hind
edge of the eye or even beyond. Teeth conical, present on jaws, vomer, palatine bones
and tongue, absent from the pterygoids. Anterior dorsal fin with a moderate
number of rays (10-15) : anal with rather few (10-13). Scales small and cycloid,
none on the head. Lateral-line straight. Coecal appendages numerous. A pancreas
present.

Geographical distribution. This family of physostomatous fishes is found in
Europe, Asia and America, and is most abundant in the Arctic or colder regions, in
contradistinction to the distribution of the carps and siluroids, which augment in
numbers the nearer we approach the tropics. The groups of salmon and trout are
so intimately connected one with another that a common origin to both would
scarcely be denied, and here arises the inquiry of whether their ancestors were
originally marine or inhabitants of the fresh waters. Several structural reasons
appear to point to the sea having originally been the place of their abode. If we
look at the salmon we observe that although it ascends into the fresh waters to
breed, so soon as it leaves the sea and enters rivers it begins to deteriorate in
condition, its flesh becomes softer in quality and paler in colour, while the silvery
lustre of the scales commences to change to a more muddy hue.

The indigenous species belonging to this genus have been placed in three
sub-generic groups, and to a certain extent arbitrarily separated from one another
in the following manner :

A. Anadi-omous species, with deciduous vomerine teeth, which are usually
shed at an early age. Salmo.

B. Non-migratory fresh water species, with deciduous vomerine teeth. Fario.

C. Non-migratory fresh water species, in which the vomerine teeth are
restricted to near the head of that bone. Salvelini.

The two first of these groups not being separated one from the other by any
impassable barrier, I propose in the following remarks to allude generally both to
the sub-genus Salmones or salmons, and trout, leaving observations upon the
Salvelini or charrs, until that group comes specially under consideration.

Dui"ing the present century much has been written in this country respecting
the salmon and the trout, their natural history and economic uses. Founded
possibly upon the views of sportsmen, naturalists, and fishermen, laws have been
enacted from which but insufficient benefits have accrued, making one reflect
whether our ancestors may not have been more practically acquainted with
the habits of these fish and the requirements of fisheries, than are the legislators
of the present century.

It may not be waste of space, when referring to the important family of
Salmonidw, first to ascertain what have been the views held by the best known of
our later naturalists concerning the species or varieties of true Salmonidce which
are found in or around these islands ; for the genus Salmo has been divided into
(1) Salmones, or true salmons, wherein the body of the vomer is toothed at
some period of their lives, and (2) the Salvelini or charrs, which have the vomerine
teeth restricted to near the head of that bone.

Donovan, in his British Fishes (1802-1808), referred to the (1) sewen or
Salmo cambricus, of which he tells us, among other indicati ins, that the head is
shorter than in the common salmon, and the tail more forked this he considered
to be an anadromous form peculiar to Wales; (2) the common salmon, Salmo salar;
(3) the trout, Salmo fario, which he observed to be subject to many variations.
He alluded to that from the Llynteiji, a lake of South Wales, termed Goch y dail,
and marked with black spots as large as sixpences ; to a crooked-tailed variety in
the Einion, a river not far from Machynllaeth, and also to a similar form being in

54 PHYSOSTOMI.

the Snowdon lakes ; to the Gillaroo trout of Ireland, remarkable for the great
thickness of its stomach, though it does not otherwise differ from the common
trout; and, lastly, to some in Scotch lakes that are spotted very differently from
the common sorts, which he suspected to be a distinct species, but of which he
makes no farther mention. He likewise alluded to how trout vary in size, and
referred to the Fordwich form, in Kent, which attains to nearly that of the salmon ;
to the Buddaghs of Lough Neagh, in Ireland, some of which have been known to
weigh 30 lb. He also remarked upon trout, the flesh of which was both of the red
and white kind, although captured during the same season in two contiguous
streams in Cardiganshire, one of which invariably produced the red and the other
the white variety.

Turton admitted into the British fauna, 1807 (1) the salmon, Sahno salar ;
(2) the shewen, Sahno eriox, to which he referred Donovan's sewen; (3) the salmon
trout, Sahno trutta; (4) the common trout, Sahno fario ; (5) the white salmon,
Salmo phinoc ; and (6) the samlet, Sahno sahnulus.

Fleming, in his History of British Animals, 1828, gave first those anadromous
forms that have a forked tail, as (1) the common salmon, Salmo salar ; (2) the
bull trout, Salmo hucho, which is little inferior to the salmon in size, but more
elongated, and has white and insipid flesh, but which he states has no teeth on
the vomer; (3) the phinock or white trout, Sahno alius, which seldom attains to
a foot in length, and is common in the seas and rivers of Scotland and the North
of England. Secondly, anadromous forms with even tails, as (4) the sea trout,
Salmo trutta, of which he considered the samlet or parr to be the young of this or
of the salmon, the migrations of the two almost coinciding ; (5) the gray trout,
Sahno eriox, including S. cambricus, and found in the sea and in rivers. Lastly,
forms stationary in rivers, as (6) the common trout, Salmo fario, remarking of
the Gillaroo variety that when it feeds on shell-fish the coats of the stomach
acquire a thickness similar to the gizzards of birds.

Agassiz, Brit. Assoc. 1834, only admitted (1) Salmo salar; (2) S. trutta; (3)
S. fario, and (4) the charr S. umbla.

Jenyns, in his Manual of British Vertebrate Animals, 1835, included (1)
the common salmon ; (2) the bull trout or gray salmon, S. eriox ; (3) the sea trout,
S. trutta, inhabiting the sea and rivers, identical with the salmon-trout of the
London markets and the white trout of Pennant and Fleming ; (4) the common
trout, S. fario, with its variety the Gillaroo ; (5) the great lake trout, S. ferox,
which he believed to be identical with S. lactcstris, of Berkenhout, though Agassiz
believed not of continental authors.

Yarrell, in his History of British Fishes, 1836, gave (1) the salmon ; (2) the
bull trout or gray trout, S. eriox and S. cambricus ; (3) the salmon trout, S. trutta;
(4) the parr or samlet, S. sahnulus; (5) the common trout; (6) the great lake
trout; and in a later edition (7) the Loch Leven trout, S. levenensis.

Knox added Sahno estuarius in 1855.

Parnell in 1838, in his prize essay on the Fishes of the Firth of Forth,
entered very fully into his views respecting the Salmonidw. He admitted (1) the
salmon ; (2) the bull trout, S. eriox, of which he enumerates and figures the
following varieties which he has obtained in the Firth of Forth: a salmon spotted
bull trout, a few spotted bull trout, a thickly spotted bull trout, a large headed
bull trout, a curved spotted bull trout, a crescent tailed bull trout, a Norway bull
trout, and a salmon bull trout identical with S. trutta of Jenyns and Yarrell ; (3)
salmon trout, S. trutta, which is likewise the same as S. albus of Fleming ; (4)
the parr ; (5) the common trout ; (6) the Loch Leven trout.

Jardine, in his British Salmonidae, 1839, figured (1) the salmon ; (2) the
phinock ; (3) the great lake trout ; (4) the common trout and varieties ; (5) the
Solway migratory trout ; (6) the salmon trout.

"White, in the list of the specimens of British animals in the National Museum
enumerated in 1851 (1) the common salmon; (2) the sea trout; (3) the bull or
gray trout ; (4) the common trout ; (5) and the great lake trout.

Thompson, in his Natural History of Ireland, 1856, gave (1) the salmon,
including the parr ; (2) the gray or bull trout, S. eriox ; (3) the salmon trout ; (4)

SALMONlDyE. 55

the common trout, including the Gillaroo, which variety he recorded having met
with in most fresh water races ; (5) the great lake trout.

Dr. Giinther, in a catalogue of fishes in the British Museum, described in 1866
the following anadromous forms: (1) Salmo salar, Vertebra?, 59 (60), Ccecal
appendages, 51 to 77 ; (2) 8. argenteus, Ccec. pyl. 61-67 ; (3) S. trutta, Vert.
59-60, Ccec. pyl. 43-61; (4) 8. orcadensis, Vert. 56-57, Ccec. pyl. 50; (5)
8. brachypoma, Vert. 59, Ccec. pyl. 45-47 ; (6) 8. cambricus, Vert. 59, Ccec. pyl.
33-52. And of the non-migratory fresh water forms, admitted (7) 8. levenensis,
Vert. 57-59, Ccec. pyl. 49-90; (8) 8.fario, variety Gaimardi, Vert. 59-60, Ccec. pyl.
33-46, variety ausonii, Vert. 57-58, Ccec. pyl. 38-47; (9) 8. ferox, Vert. 56-57,
Ccec. pyl. 43-49; (10) 8. stomachicus, Vert. 59-60, Ccec. pyl. 44; (11) S. galli-
vensis, Vert. 59, Ccec. pyl. 44 ; (12) 8. nigrvpinnis, Vert. 57-59, Ccec. pyl. 36-42.

From the foregoing we find that Donovan, Turton, Fleming, Jenyns, Yarrell,
Parnell, Jardine, Thompson, and White admitted the existence of five or six
British species of true salmons in our waters, which Giinther increased to twelve, as
well as two varieties of the common trout.

A thorough investigation into these various forms possesses more than a
passing interest, for if we have many species of true salmon and trout in our
waters and they interbreed, it first becomes a consideration as to what are the
probabilities of sterility occurring in the offspring ? On the other hand, should
trout from two apparently distinct species be crossed and no unusual phenomenon
occur, except improvement in the breed, while signs of sterility do not follow, the
supposition must be raised that we are dealing with local races and not with
different species, and that the young are mongrels and not hybrids.

Here 1 must shortly allude to how I propose discriminating between local races
or varieties and species, for what one naturalist considers a variety another looks
upon as a species. I shall consider species among the true salmons to be an
assemblage of individuals which agree together in their structure and in the
development of the sexes, but differ in some structural character from all other
fishes. Also that functionally they are capable of fertile union together, but not to
an equal extent or not at all with the members of any other group of fishes. Even
within the limits of a single species we find no two exactly similar, but a tendency
to divergence from the original type appears to exist, which power of divergence
is most likely to preserve and accumulate useful variations. For it has been
abundantly proved that artificially, by judicious selection and breeding from
individuals which are possessed of some desired variation, such may become
permanent in future generations ; while natural selection (perhaps assisted by
some unknown factor) would similarly tend to favour the continuation in a wild
state of such forms as possess variation favourable to the life of the animal,
and thus produce and continue certain local varieties or races. If, however, the
variations from the type, present in certain examples, are not of a persistent
character, nor exceed the differences between the limits laid down for a species,
these cannot be considered as indicating a distinct species ; for to render such
valid, we must have a permanence of variation from the original type (see vol. i,
p. 245). Thus, among the sticklebacks we find in the ten-spined form some,
due to local causes, possessing ventral fins, othei-s destitute of them ; but their
difference not being permanent merely resolves itself into a local race or variety.
The number of vertebras and the ccecal appendages have been asserted to be
constant characters which may materially assist in fixing a species among the
Salmonidce, and I propose investigating in detail some of these various structural
and functional differences that have been brought forward for the purpose of
establishing species among the true salmon, Salmones. Dr. Giinther has pointed
out nine constant characters of variation in his elaborate treatment of these fishes,
and which I shall commence alluding to as my conclusions differ from those he
has so elaborately set forth.

1. The number of vertebrae. The constancy of this character we are told "is
truly surprising," as an excess over the normal number by two, or a decrease to the
same extent, is of rare occurrence. But the inquirer finds that in the recorded
number of these bones in the migratoiy species, the variation has been restricted

56 PHYSOSTOMI.

by Dr. Giinther to between fifty-nine and sixty, and among the reputed seven
non-migratory forms to between fifty-six and sixty. Occasionally two small
vertebrae take the place of one large one, as if a division had occurred ; while
in others may be observed an abnormally lai^ge one, as if two had coalesced,
as shown by the normal number of hemal spines for two bones being present.
Dr. Giinther instances a case " where three vertebrae were united," and Cobbold
" of the coalescence of numerous vertebral centra." In a fish wherein these
bones normally number about sixty, an extreme variation of five (especially
as such has not been proved to be constant) does not by itself appear to be
beyond what might be anticipated in a single species ; and inconstant variations
would scarcely justify the creation of a new specific name for the reception of
such, unless conjoined to other circumstances. Among a number of common
trout which I captured at Colesbourne, on the Cots wold Hills in Gloucestershire,
some had fifty-seven, others fifty-eight vertebrae ; while in a few received from
Cardiganshire I ascertained that this variation extended to between fifty-seven
and sixty. As the extreme limits of variation recorded in this country among
the common trout have been between fifty-six and sixty, and as these examples of
an undoubted single species captured in one locality gave from fifty-seven to
sixty, it would seem to be a rash conclusion to formulate species of Salmonidce
solely consequent upon an enumeration of the number of vertebrae as ascertained
in a few specimens. Only one fact appears to be rendered exceedingly probable,
which is, that anadromous forms generally possess an excess of one or two
vertebrae over such as are more strictly residents only in fresh waters.

2. The number of coecal appendages. This has been adduced as a character which
may materially aid in discriminating a species. If the list of British Salmones already
referred to is examined, it will be seen that these appendages in the common salmon
may vary between fifty-one and seventy-seven, and in the Loch Leven trout between
forty-nine to ninety. (It must be noticed that personally I have observed larger
variations than are here recorded, but I have purposely restricted myself to the
numbers given in the British Museum catalogue.) These cceca are capable of
distension, of subdivision, of amalgamation between two or more, or of being longer
or shorter than is commonly the case. The difficulty does not appear in
discovering variations, but in determining within what fixed number they exist
in a given species. At Colesbourne, I found in the common brook trout already
referred to, from thirty-four to thirty-nine ccecal appendages, and up to forty-
four in the Cardiganshire examples, the same as in S.ferox. The question forces
itself on our consideration whether in any form of trout the number of these
appendages are persistent or inconstant, and whether change of climate or food
may occasion any variation. Here I must refer to the results obtained from the
examination of trout that have been reared in distant localities, but descended
from British breeds. Mr. Arthur (Transactions of the Otago Institute, July
9. 1878) refers to the stock of common trout " which were liberated in our
streams in November, 1869, and from these and their descendants the ova for
stocking the rivers in Otago have been obtained." The original ova came from
Tasmania, the trout existing there being the proceeds from three batches of eggs
supplied from England through the kind offices of Mr. Francis Francis and
Mr. Frank Buckland. They were obtained from streams in Buckinghamshire and
Hampshire, and reputed to be the eggs of the common brook trout. The number
of coecal appendages is recorded in six instances from Otago, and they varied
from forty-three to fifty-four, whereas the limits in the British race is restricted
in the British Museum catalogue to between thirty-three and forty-seven. Even
were these hybrids, and their existence was pointed out by Willughby, the
number of their ccecal appendages would still exceed, by at least seven, any
recorded among the British non-migratory forms, except the Loch Leven trout,
and are consequently an excellent instance of the inconstancy of their number.
Here I must refer to Mr. Senior's observations on these trout, now in a wild state,
as he has observed thorn in some parts of Tasmania. Owing to the abundance of
winged insects, beet lea, grasshoppers, &c, it seldom rises at the artificial fly ; when
hooked it has lost the energy of its ancestors, for after one rush if baffled it

SALMONIM]. 57

tamely gives in, while at table it is muddy and coarse, like an English tench.
Perhaps were its digestion more rapid its vigour would increase and it seems as if
nature is now augmenting the number of its ccecal appendages, and consequently
increasing the extent of its intestinal area. As regards the Loch Leven trout,
reasons exist for suspecting the race to be more nearly allied to the anadromous
than to the true fresh water species. We may thus be dealing with a race that is
changing from a marine to a fresh water form, living as it now does in fresh water,
but having the colour of a sea-trout. Some examples in the British Museum,
captured during the month of April, have the ccecal appendages fewer in number
than commonly perceived in the Sahno levenensis, but they are wider than normal,
and may be instances of a confluence of two or more into one, but it is suggestive
that this character is very inconstant in this species, which seems to be in a
transitional condition ; perhaps their diameter will gradually diminish, until in
time cceca similar to such as are found in the common brook-trout will be present.
Whatever the result of such an investigation might be, it is still evident that
the number of ccecal appendages in the various species of trout or salmon is
inconstant, and consequently should be most guardedly employed for the purpose of
constituting a species. British marine salmonidse possess more of these appendages
than do the strictly fresh water forms, while a change of climate to the antipodes
seems to increase the necessity for these organs, and as a result in their numbers,
in such as are bred there.

Here I shall refer to one of the so-called inconstant variations, or changes of
colour, such being closely relating to the foregoing remarks upon the Loch Leven
trout, the tints of which resemble those of sea forms as much as do the number of
their ccecal appendages.

Variations in colour must be due to some cause acting directly or indirectly on

the fish. Thus, among the young of the members of the Salmonidce, we perceive

that dark bands or bars down their sides are almost universal, being evidently

hereditary throughout the family. This same banding of the young is seen in

some of the horse-mackerel, Caranx, flying-fish, Exoeoetus, the gar-fish, Belone,

etc. It has been erroneously asserted that the young of the migratory forms of

salmon and trout possess two or three more bars than the non-migratory brook

trout. These bars, as well as the black and red spots on the sides, are almost

invariably lost in the anadromous forms when they are in a condition to migrate

into salt water, and assume their silvery smolfc stage (with or without X-shaped

black spots). In rivers it is rare for bands to be retained in adult trout, while

most of the black and red ocellated spots as a rule remain, although instances

have been recorded in which they have entirely disappeared. In streams where,

due to some local cause, the trout are small, it is not uncommon to perceive the

bars as well as the black and red ocellated spots retained throughout life. I

found this obtained among some from brooks near Penzance ; in fact, they were

as brilliant as young parrs, to which, except for the white edging to some of their

fins, they bore rather a striking resemblance : in a few instances I have also

observed this, but to a much fainter degree, in trout taken at Colesbourne, in

Gloucestershire. Examples of brook trout have been found on emigrating to the

sea, as a rule (to which there are exceptions), to assume the brilliant silvery

livery of the migrating salmonoids, as well as their X-shaped black spots. Mr.

Harvie Brown remarked (June 12th, 1882) on having caught at Durness several

so-called " sea trout " from a sea pool, or first pool at the mouth of the river, fresh

water at low tide, salt or brackish at high tides. From their silvery appearance

they are known as " sea trout," but are the river form acclimatized to brackish

or nearly salt water, or else periodically visiting the same between tides.

Mr. Lockington (American Naturalist, May, 1880, p. 368) observed the same

phenomenon in the Western hemisphere, where the Sahno iridens, a resident in all

Calif ornian brooks and rivers, descends in the autumn to the sea, and when in

salt water changes its colour to a steel blue, while its spots mostly disappear.

But although we may generally anticipate the non-migi-atory forms to be more
vividly coloured than such as are strictly marine, still among the former there are
numerous variations in tints and markings which have been explained in more

58 PHYSOSTOMI.

than one manner, as the nnptial season, the effects of temporary emotions, of age,

or the state of the creature's health, or its food. It has been observed that a

residence in sea or brackish water causes the fish to assume a general silvery or

steel colour, with or without black spots, and that these latter are not surrouuded

by a light circle. Clear water in rapid rivers or lakes,* especially when the

bottom is pebbly, is similarly seen to contain somewhat silvery fishes, with black

X-shaped spots. Sir William Jardine remarked that a variety very frequent

among trout in small Alpine lochs in Scotland had large dark or red spots placed

in a pale or clear surrounding field, these marks being very large, while the

principal part of the spotting was confined to the centre of the body. The colour,

depth, and character of the water also have an influence on the fish, the presence

of moss and peat, or a muddy bottom, usually causing a dark tint, while some

captured in dark holes or caves have been seen nearly black. The colours of the

tSalmones may be shortly summed up as silvery, with or without black spotsf

among the marine, and some resident in large clear pieces of water, as lochs or

rivers : more or less speckled with black and red when non-migratory and living

in fresh waters : while should the race be small, a persistence of the transverse bars

or bands on the body, which are present in most of the young, may be observed

even in adults.

Irrespective of changes in colour externally, a difference in food may occasion
it in the flesh of these fish, whether such alteration in diet is due to choice or to
necessity. Thus Crustacea and their allies may be absent from the locality they
frequent, or if present the fish may not relish that food so much as some other
which exists in the water. In certain rivers there are trout with white and others
with red flesh, the two forms being in good health and equally delicate for the
table. This has also been observed in the American charr, Salmo fontinalis,
introduced into this country, and in which it has been clearly traceable to the
food it lives upon.

3. The form of the preopcrcle in adult fish. The shape of this bone varies in
species belonging to the true Salmones with the age of the fish, while it has
likewise been remarked that in some races the development of its lower limb is
much more pronounced that it is in others obtained from different localities.
This, however, merely shows that in the marine as in the fresh water races there
are fish subject to variations in the shape of this bone. The limb is very short in
the young, elongating with age in some forms, but not so in others ; while an
arrest of development may easily take place even on opposite sides of the head
of a specimen, which were this the sole criterion of species, might, and
sometimes does, show Salmo trutta on one side and S. albus, or brachypoma,
on the other. Thompson was of opinion that differences in the form of this bone
may sometimes be due to sex.

4. The width and strength of the maxillary in adult fish. This will depend upon
the food which the fish has subsisted upon during its lifetime. If this organ has
been much called into action, it will greatly exceed in size and strength what is
found in examples in which it has been less employed. It appears to be almost
invariable that the lower jaw is more developed in the male than in the female,
besides which in the former it is often provided with a hook at its extremity.

5. The size of the maxillary and of the vomerine teeth. The same remarks are
suitable to this form of variation as apply to the maxillary bone.

6. The arrangement and permanence of the vomerine teeth. These vary so

* Percy St. John, in Wild Sports of the West, p. 240, remarks that he "' never observed the
effect of bottom soil upon the quality of fish so strongly marked as in the trout taken in a small
lake in the county of Monaghan. The water is a long irregular sheet, of no great depth, one
shore bounded by a bog, the other by a dry and gravelly surface. On the bog side the trout are
of the dark and shapeless species peculiar to moory loughs, while the other affords the beautiful and
sprightly variety, generally inhabiting rapid and sandy streams. Narrow as the lake is, the iish
appear to confine themselves to their respective limits : the red trout being never found upon the
bog moiety of the lake, nor the black where the under surface is hard gravel.''

f It cannot be admitted that the black X-shaped spots are due to the influence of salt water, a3
we see thorn present in our strictly frc^h water grayling, Thymallus.

SALMONID^E. 59

much in different specimens of the same species that it would be very unsafe to
base any specific differences upon such a slender substrata of fact.

7. The form of the caudal fin in specimens of a given size, age, and sexual
development. Here again the locality which the fish inhabited must be taken
into consideration, for it has a great bearing upon the formation of the fins, being
required of a much greater strength in rapid streams than in such as are sluggish.
Age is no criterion as to size : and sexual development depends upon some, at
present, unknown factor, for it seems that temporary sterility is not absent
among the salmon.

8. A great development of the pectoral fins when constant in individuals from the
same locality. Here sex has an undoubted influence on the size of this fin, it being
frequently most developed in the males. Variations in the size of fins do not show
sufficient differences on which to constitute species, while in the shape, more
especially of the caudal, we find them frequently varying with age, being more or
less emarginate in the young compared to what it becomes in the semi -adult and
adult stages.

9. The size of the scales. Here the number of rows existing in a line from the
back of the adipose dorsal fin to the lateral-line certainly affords one of the
most constant characters, but the number along the lateral-line is much more
deceptive.

Having enumerated the characters stated to be most constant among the two
first sub-generic groups in the genus Sahno, I arrive at the conclusion that most
of them are fallacious, and that too great a stress having been placed upon
them, many errors have resulted. The consequence has been that the number of
species has been unduly augmented, and local races having been accorded generic
rank, intermediate forms have not been searched for, but new ones constantly
hunted up. Thus the synonymy will be a cause of endless confusion to future
ichthyologists. Besides this every little variety of form, colour or structure, has
been accounted for by terming such hybrids.

The proportions of different parts of the body vary with age among the
Salmonidce as they do in other fishes, and even more considerably in some
anadromous forms which have been subjected to unnatural retention in fresh
waters, insufficiency of food or sickness from any cause. While the head of the
male is usually longer than that of the female, although in barren males the
disproportion is not very considerable.

A few remarks are here necessary upon hybridism among the Salmonidw, for
from our earliest authors on ichthyology down to the present period the existence
of such has been remarked upon, and of late years artificial propagation has
clearly proved that such may occur. Experiments in order to test this question
were instituted by Professor Rasch in 1867, and he found that the ova of the sea
and river trout are developed regularly, whatever forms were the parent ones, and
that the offspring were fertile. That of the ova of the charr fertilized by the milt
of the trout, thirty to forty per cent, were developed, but that many young fish
perished after being hatched. Trout ova, fertilized by the milt of the charr, only
gave ten per cent, of young, many of which were misshapen. Salmon ova
fertilized with trout milt yielded forty per cent, of young fish, but more if the
milt of the charr were employed. The ova of a hybrid between a trout and a
charr could not be fertilized by means of a trout milt.

The foregoing facts are suggestive that a very close relationship exists between
the anadromous marine trout and the non-migratory form inhabiting fresh waters.
Thus we are informed that the anadromous sewin, or anadromous trout of Welsh
rivers, very commonly interbreeds with the brook trout, hybrids being the result.

In the British Museum may be seen a beautiful series of these fishes presented
by the Rev. A. Morgan from the Rbymney, a few of which have been retained in
fresh water after the normal period for their descent to the sea had arrived. Some
have elongated bodies, others comparatively long pectoral fins ; and, again, hybrids
are said to be present between the sewin and the brook trout, a conclusion
seemingly arrived at because their teeth are more developed than in the sea-going
form, while their pectoral fins and colour approximate to those of the non-migratory

60 PHYSOSTOMI.

brook trout. Sterility, however, does not appear to normally exist in these so-called
hybrids which raises a suspicion that we may be dealing with developing varieties
and not with hybrids at all. And as these forms have facilities for returning to
the sea, did they desire to do so, we are led to ask whether some of them may not
be changing their conditions of life, and as a result developing structural
differences, or even whether they and the brook trout can be really distinct species.*
At Sir James Gibson Maitland's fish farm at Howietoun, some of the young of the
Loch Leven trout take on cannibal propensities, and if small their colour is yellow,
their teeth become abnormally developed, and they grow very rapidly. It is thus
evident that under certain circumstances we may find trout provided with stronger
teeth than is usual in the species. If we look at examples of sewin retained some
time in fresh water ponds we see their pectoral fins more pointed and usually
longer than in their sea-going relatives. This leaves chiefly for consideration
whether these silvery forms with black X-shaped spots could, under any conditions,
assume the deep coloured and spotted appearance of the common brook trout, or
anything approaching to it.

At Howietoun this general yellow tint shows itself when the fish has arrived
at about its fourth year, but is also affected by seasons and food. When fed
upon horseflesh they remain of a gray colour, if clams (Pecte?i ohtusata) are given
they assume the yellow colour. Overcrowding large ones, or such as are 4 lb. or
upwards, induces rusty spots ; if the numbers are reduced, and vegetable food
given, as lilies and clover, they became gray ; while silvery scales are a sign that
they are in their primest condition. The young parrs may retain red spots up to
eighteen months old, but such are almost absent between that age and three years.
Red spots on large fish are mostly perceived in examples intermediate between
kelts and trout in their primest condition, but occasionally they are present
all the year round. During the breeding season the males, if healthy, assume a
brownish orange colour, or if from considerable depths a darker tint, while the
females are golden or orange red. It consequently appears that conditions of
health and changes of food may occasion alterations not only in the superficial
colour of these trout, but likewise in their more deeply-seated colour spots.

The foregoing point out that as the colour of Loch Leven trout may be altered
by food and conditions of health, there exists no reason why the same changes
may not occur among examples of sewin which take on a fresh water state of
existence, more especially as the British Museum possesses some of these so-called
hybrids from the Copenhagen Museum. In the series of Welsh fishes the whole
of the changes from the anadromous sewin may be explained as natural sequences
to ascertained causes and without accepting the theory of their being non-sterile
hybrids.

Much discussion has arisen why some of the salmon breed earlier in certain
rivers than in others, whether this is due to the temperature of the water, or
occasioned by alterations in the physical conditions of the bed of the stream and
its affluents ; or, lastly, to the local breed being an early or late one. This last
question involves the consideration of whether necessity having compelled the
change from what was an early breeding river into a late one, the descendants of
the fish removed to suitable localities would still adhere to the late period of
spawning of their immediate progenitors, or return to the earlier time of their
ancestral stock.

In looking at these questions it will be necessary first to consider whether any
general rules as to dates of spawning among this family of fishes can be deduced
from what occurs in different localities. The period in Great Britain among the
salmon may be roughly estimated (excluding local exceptions and climatic
eccentricities) at from the commencement of September until the middle of
January.

Sir Humphrey Davy, writing from Southern Austria, remarked that " the
charr I got this moruing with mature eggs was just about to spawn, yet in England

* If, as asserted, these are hybrids between two species, the sewin and the brook trout, it is
difficult to understand why these is a regular gradation between the two forms.

salmonim:. 6i

they spawn in the winter. If summer is the spawning time of the charr and trout
of the lakes of Southern Austria, it is connected with or owing to the waters at
that time being of the temperature best fitted for the purpose, most of these lakes
being fed by mountain streams, frozen in the winter, and full in summer from the
melting of the snow." In Sweden, Artedi remarked that the salmon spawned in
the middle of the summer. Dr. Heysham stated that in Cumberland salmon at
first prefer spawning in the warmer streams, leaving the snow-fed ones until later
on. Yarrell considered that " rivers issuing from large lakes afford early salmon,
the waters having been purified by deposition in the lakes ; on the other hand,
rivers swollen by melting snows in the spring months are later in their season of
producing fish, and yield their supply when the lake rivers are beginning to fail."
I think that without multiplying instances the fact may be fairly assumed that
temperature has some influence in the locality selected by salmon for breeding
purposes, the colder and more exposed streams being usually left until somewhat
later than the warmer ones, while in very cold regions spawning may be deferred
even until the summer months.

Were the foregoing views correct, and if temperature irrespective of
geographical location has a marked influence upon the time these fishes spawn,
we ought to be able to observe such among the trout and Anaclromous Sahnonoids
despatched in the form of ova to Tasmania from this country. Turning to
Mr. Allport's account (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1870, p. 25) we find a most marked
corroboration of these views. We know the cold season in that portion of the
globe cori'esponds with our summer, and the very first brook trout which were
spawned in Tasmania occurred on July 3, 1866 ; by the 7th of August fourteen
females had been stripped, and shortly afterwards five pair of trout were observed
constructing redds in the River Plenty. During June, July and August, 1867, the
trout were again stripped of their ova artificially. In this country, as observed by
Buckland, trout spawn at different periods in different rivers from about September
to February. The very first Tasmanian bred trout hatched from English trout
eggs have not selected the month for spawning adopted by their ancestors in this
hemisphere, but have chosen others which are better suited for their purpose,
clearly demonstrating the possibility of trout being capable under changed
conditions of varying the period of the breeding season.

But because temperature exercises a manifest influence as to when and where
the eggs of Salmonidce are deposited, it does not follow that it is the temperature
of the water which is the sole cause the salmon has under consideration as to the
period at which it shall enter certain rivers, some of which are known to possess
spring fish, or such as ascend from March until June, whereas in others they more
commonly pass up during and after September.

I will first give an instance of a river which was originally an early one, but was
found to become a late one by the Earl of Home, who, in 1837, observed " that
in the Tweed a very great change has taken place within these twenty or thirty
years ; a considerable portion of the breeding fish not arriving into breeding
condition until long after the time they had formerly been in the habit of doing
so." But here the question arises whether this had happened consequent upon
any changes in the river, or alteration in the natural period of spawning in the
fish irrespective of the condition of the waters. The river itself, it is observed,
had changed due to the draining of the sheep farms on the hills, the effect
produced being that a little summer flood which took a fortnight or three weeks
to run off previous to 1795, is now completely run out in eight hours. The bogs
on the hill sides, which were the feeders to the river, have the water at once
carried off by drains, causing sudden but short floods, which have all run off
before the river has had time to clear itself. Sir H. Davy compared the Tweed
district as it was prior to these drains, to what it had become subsequent to their
construction to two houses, the one covered with thatch, and the other with
slate ; the first dripping for hours after the rain has fallen, the other ceasing when
the rain stops.

If sufficient water for ascent does not exist, if no safe-holding pools are present,
as observed by Mr. Brandon, a spring salmon would have but little chance of

02 PHYSOSTOMI.

ascent, or if it did the groat probabilities are that as the water became low it
would be knocked on the head. And though he supposes these early fish breed
similar descendants, we have but little proof of it, although many excellent
fishermen hold the same view. In some Irish rivers the breed of early fish was
almost extinguished by allowing the nets to capture all for a season or two, when
it very soon came to the point that there was nothing to capture.

Kelts and what to do with them has exercised many minds, and I cannot
resist thinking that, doubtless, unintentionally, the opinion of some of our older
authors have been either misunderstood or misquoted. Without more than
just touching upon this subject it seems that it may be divided as follows : That
the salmon subsequent to the spawning season becomes sickly, and is as well
destroyed as kept ; that while mending it consumes more young salmon, trout,
and other fish than it is worth ; that kelts might be eaten.

After spawning salmon becomes much exhausted and very easily susceptible
to disease and capture. It has been proposed to kill all the male kelts from the
commencement of February; and all of either sex from the commencement of March.
That the act of fertilizing ova is not invariably fatal to the salmon appears easy
of proof, for the male parr possesses milt capable of fecundating ova. It is,
therefore, evident that such must be evacuated or retained, and if the latter
disease would be induced. Trout kept in confinement may be spawned more
than once, omitting the consideration of whether such only takes place on
alternate years. A correspondent of the Field observed, " a few years ago a fine
male fish of about 20 lb. was used for spawning purposes at Stormontfield ; a
mark was put on him by means of a copper wire, and two years afterwards he
was got when nearly 30 lb. weight on the same ford and at the same season ; and,
after doing duty again was returned to the river, hale and strong, but was not
traced afterwards."

Mr. Brown records how, on May 4, 1861, he hooked a kelt weighing 161b.,
and having fastened round his tail a copper medal, on which was stamped " Athol,
No. 78." It had been caught on the preceding April 1, when it only weighed
13^ lb., thus showing an increase of 2h lb. in five weeks. The results of the Duke
of Athol's experiments are too well known to need recapitulating. Dr. Gunther
suggests that old males or those possessing a hook to the mandible, perish after
the efforts of propagation, and cites the observations of Stella, Pallas, and
Richardson on the salmonoids of Kamtschatka and North- Western America.
He observes of kelted salmon : " Probably those which reach the sea alive perish
there." Sir John Richardson, however, remarked : " The destruction by poachers
in the higher parts of the rivers of the large enfeebled kelts, or fish which have
completed their spawning operations, is also extremely prejudicial, for these
individuals (almost utterly useless as food at the time alluded to) would, if
allowed to descend to the salubrious sea, ere long revisit their native streams,
greatly increased in size, and full of health and vigour."

During the period a kelt is mending it lives mostly on small fish, especially
young salmon and trout ; and Mr. Francis Francis suggests whether, this being the
case, it is worth its keep. That by destroying so many small fish, the kelt, it is
true, may return of a larger size, but it is questionable whether the river regains
so great an aggregate weight of salmon as if numbers of the kelts were
slaughtered.

It has likewise been proposed that people should be permitted to kill and eat
these kelts, which otherwise probably become lost as food. But prior to such a
proceeding being sanctioned, it might not be amiss to inquire whether they would
be wholesome. Certainly a correspondent of the Field remarks : " I was going
to Ilfracombe lately, and saw many old back fish being hawked about. These
old salmon come back to the tidal waters to recover before going to sea, and are
caught by the score, and have been sold for fourpence a pound." But if eaten
they may occasion poisonous symptoms. Thus Buckland relates how a water-
bailiff, who was a strong, healthy man, ate a portion of one, and was made so ill
that he was confined to his bed for two days. Dr. Gerald Boate, writing from
Ireland in 1645, tells us leprosy was caused " through the foul gluttony of the

SALM0NIM3. 63

inhabitants in the unwholesome devouring of foul salmon when they are out of
season, which is after they have cast their spawn, upon which they do not only
grow very weak and flabby, but so unwholesome as it would loathe any man to
see them." Not many months since I saw some unseasonable salmon in the
possession of a fisherman, and inquired what he intended to do with them. He
informed me they were useless in the market, because if cooked their flesh would
become more or less black ; but, with a grin, continued, that they did excellently
well kippered !

A. Deciduous vomerine teeth (Salmones).'

SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES.

a. About eleven rows of scales in an oblique line from adipose dorsal fin to the

lateral-line.

1. Salmo solar, D. 13-14, P. 14, V. 9, A. 11, L. I. 120-125.

b. Fourteen or more rows of scales in an oblique line from, adipose dorsal fin to the

lateral-line.

2. Salmo trutta, D. 12-14, P. 14-15, V. 9, A. 10-12, L. 1. 120-130.

2 A. Salmo levenensis, D. 13-14, P. 14-15, V. 9, A. 10-12, L. 1. 115-130.
2B. Salmo fario, D. 13-15, P. 14-15, V. 9, A. 10-12, L. 1. 115-130.

The true salmons which are included in this division of the genus Salmo consist
of fishes which normally reside in the sea (although in some latitudes they live in
lakes), and migrate to rivers in which their ova are deposited and the young
hatched and reared. Here we have true anadromous forms, and as the salmon or
salmon-trout have the same peculiarity in selecting suitable localities for breeding,
differentiated by the fish ascending to nearer the sources of rivers, I propose giving
a brief outline of how reproduction is carried on.

Salmon enter our rivers in varying numbers throughout the year, unless
impurities (as in the Thames) have annihilated the breed. At certain times, as
during the cold season, they ascend for the purpose of reaching their spawning
beds, and having deposited their eggs in redds or nests, they descend to the
sea in a miserable condition, many of the males succumbing from exhaustion.
Rondeletius and also Gesner, who wrote upon the salmon upwards of three and a
quarter centuries ago, were both upholders of the doctrine that salmon spawned in
the sea, one which, were it believed in and acted upon, would be disastrous to our
salmon fishei'ies, as it might be advanced that these fishes could as well breed in
the ocean as in rivers, consequently on their behalf no necessity arises for keeping
our fresh waters pure, or having free passes in our streams in order to allow them
to reach their spawning-beds. It was probably from such views sprang the notion
of the parr being a distinct species, and even now there are some who doubt
whether our " last springs " are the young of Salmo salar. Willughby, in his
History of Fishes, published in 1686, lib. iv, adduces his reasons for disputing the
correctness of Rondeletius's and Gesner's opinions; while Pontoppidan, in 1755,
in his Natural History of Norway, returned to Gesner's views, asserting that
he was well assured that salmon chiefly eject their roe at the mouths of rivers,
where they empty themselves into the sea, or else a little above the salt water.
Mr. Brander (Field) remarked upon having observed during the preceding summer
some holes scooped out in the gravel close to the mouth of the small river Lopie
(near the Spey), and within the reach of the salt water, and here he found in
January, 1882, a few salmon working at their redds, which were within a mile and
a half of the sea, and covered once a fortnight at spring tides with quite salt and
undrinkable water, for perhaps an hour's time. Sir James Matheson, in Davy's
Philosophical Researches (p. 261), has recorded at the mouth of the Greamster, in
the Island of Lewis, a similar instance, continuing that the spot is covered with

64 PHTSOSTOMI.

" brackish water " only for about two hours at each high tide, but not at all during 1
the neaps, while this brackish water is so diluted as to differ but little from fresh
water in specific gravity, the tide serving as a dam to the river water, and by
obstructing its free outflow, causing its accumulation and overflow. The foregoing
instances occurred near the mouths of small rivers, and should their state be such
due to pollutions or insufficiency of water that Salmon-idce are unable to ascend,
they may drop or deposit their ova in the sea or at the mouths of rivers ; but
suppose it is thus deposited, experiments have proved that the presence of salt
water is fatal to the fertilizing property of the milt, as also to the life of the
impregnated egg, should it come in contact with it.

Sir J. Matheson, during the winter of 1860-61, had the following experiment
made upon two batches of fertile salmon ova. One lot was placed on a wire cloth in
a glass vase, wherein was brackish water which was daily changed, but they all
died at the end of the tenth day. The remainder were similarly treated, but with
fresh water, and in due time they all arrived at maturity. Mr. Sinclair (Field,
February 4th, 1882) remarks upon having taken about one hundred eyed ova, of
which two portions were enclosed in wicker baskets and buried in separate streams,
one of which was reached every tide by salt water, whereas the other was entirely
fresh. They were examined in about three weeks after one set of spring tides, when all
which had been reached by the salt water were found to be dead : not so those in
which the stream was entirely fresh water. The remaining third were batched in
a wash-hand basin, in which was fresh water changed once a day. Dr. Davy also
instituted somewhat similar experiments with artificial saline water, from which it
appeared that a degree of saltness, almost or quite equal to that of sea water, is
pretty speedily fatal both to the ovum of the salmon and to the young fish : that
the same effect is produced on the young fish by brackish water of specific gravity
1016, but in a longer time, and that, when the solution is so diluted as to be
reduced to the specific gravity 1007, the advanced ovum may be hatched in it, and
the life of the young fish may be sustained in it for a few days, but with diminished
powers.

The eggs of the salmon are small, round, elastic bodies, of a clear white, pink,
or even coral colour. Due to their tough outer coat they are very elastic, as may
be seen by throwing one on the ground, from whence it will rebound like an india-
rubber ball. This strength and elasticity we know must be an exceedingly
important property if we remember where these eggs are deposited and what an
amount of pressure they may have to undergo. Young salmon are hatched from
eggs deposited in rivers, not near to its mouth, where the tide or the current
would be too strong for the young fish to live in, but in small and often
mountainous streams, where the water is pure and shallow, having a gravelly
bed which permits the redd or nest to be constructed, while deep pools in the
vicinity allow the breeding fishes to retire into them for rest. The salmon
ascends our rivers to a suitable spot, and in the gravel at the bottom of the
stream constructs its redd, which work would seem to be the occupation of
the female. She lies on one side, and, by moving her tail rapidly from one side
to the over, fans up the gravel until she gradually sinks into a kind of trough, the
male remaining near, ready to give battle to any intruder. For this purpose his
lower jaw is furnished at this period with an offensive weapon in the shape of a
cartilaginous, hook-like process. The female (waited upon by the male) now
deposits her eggs in the trough she had made, and these are fertilized by the
male, and subsequently covered with gravel to some feet in depth, the whole forming
a redd.

She now falls back into one of the deep pools, until she has acquired sufficient
strength to again shed more eggs. During this period the salmon (similar to the
shad and many other fishes) is indisposed to feed, and lives on the stock of fat it
has laid up while resident in the sea. It has been computed that every female
salmon deposits about nine hundred eggs to each pound of its weight, and that
only nine hundred of these in every 17,000 shed in British rivers ever attain the
parr stage. As might be anticipated, eggs deposited in a running stream are very
liable to be carried away by the current, and the places selected by salmon for

SALMONID^E. 05

their redds are often the localities where trout have previously deposited their
eggs, which now become routed up and carried away down stream to be devoured
by every hungry fish.

The time that salmon eggs may take before they are hatched is subject
to variations as great as from 35 to 148 days, which last period occurred
at the Crystal Palace in experiments instituted there, and 144 in the Wenham
Lake ice vaults. While acting upon previous experience, Mr. Youl succeeded
in transmitting salmon eggs to the Antipodes in small boxes packed in ice,
and which retarded hatching until the 145th day. Mr. Branden examined a redd
that appeared to have been left dry, but on opening it found that a little water was
trickling through the stones and gravel, which was sufficient to keep the ova
healthy. Having scraped a hole, he obtained a considerable number of eggs, and
these he transferred to a pail of water, where two-thirds hatched within periods
varying from five minutes to twenty-four hours. About a week subsequently he
returned to the same spot, and had another dig for salmon eggs (no rise having
occurred in the river during the interval). He collected more, and putting them
into the water, they hatched as the former ones had done. He very fairly
advances that this may be a provision to prevent ova deposited in localities
where the depth of the stream is liable to considerable fluctuations, from becoming
lost or killed, as must occur unless a delay, to obtain a suitable time, could be
provided for. For as the floods come and sweep up these redds, the imprisoned
ova are let loose, at a time when they are ready to burst and the young to emerge.
In fact, like the chrysalis, the eggs may be able to abide a suitable time.

But salmon eggs, even in redds, are not permitted to rest in peace and hatch
in security : they have many accidents to escape from and numerous enemies whose
vigilance must be avoided. Not only may floods prematurely sweep away redds
with their unripe eggs, but during the continuance of such, spawning fish are
unable to avail themselves of their usual breeding grounds because they are too
deep in the water. They consequently may have to shed their eggs in the stream,
when they will become lost, or covered with mud, or else push higher up to
where there will be more chance of their redds being left dry, and the ova perishing;
even in their annual spawning grounds, where their eggs may have been deposited,
severe seasons of drought may occasion most disastrous results. Irrespective of
the seasons, the eggs have numerous water enemies, as the fresh water shrimp,
which hunts out the nest, when they are merciless to the eggs, the larva of
the may-fly and of the dragon-fly and even some birds as the dabchick. While
swans and ducks enjoy nothing so much as the spawn of fishes, in which taste the
vole or water-rat appears to coincide. Due to the many destructive agencies at
work an ingenious plan of artificial hatching and rearing has been adopted with
great success, while by regulating the water, droughts and floods are prevented,
and many enemies are excluded which run riot among fish eggs left in a state of
nature in our rivers.

Supposing some young fish have come forth, it does not follow that the little
ones are strong and healthy. The temperature of the water ought to range out of
doors about 42 or 46, nor permitted to sink below 35, while if it reaches freezing
point, such will most probably be fatal. Should it rise to 50 the eggs may
become prematurely hatched : the higher the temperature the sooner the young
appear, and the more weakly they may be expected to be. Sometimes the jaws
are deformed in the fry, or the spinal column is curved, even two fish may be
connected together, like the Siamese twins : likewise two or even three heads have
been seen fixed to one body.

When these little fish emerge from the eggs they have a large bag (the umbilical
vesicle) attached to their stomachs : this contains the nourishment which is to
serve them for several (three to eight) weeks' subsistence, and they do not
commonly take in any food by the mouth until it is absorbed. Weighed down by
it they lie quietly among the stones at the bottom of the stream and seek
concealment from fish larger than themselves, water insects, and other enemies
which now commence to feed on them.

The salmon is rare in our rivers in comparison with the number of fry
n 5

66 PHYSOSTOMI.

hatched, and which would be quite sufficient to form a good supply had they a
chance in the battle for life in the lower waters. The paucity of these fish is due
(excluding poaching) to three main causes : (1) Difficulty in the ascent of
breeding fish owing to natural or artificial obstructions in the river; (2)
immoderate netting ; and (3) pollution of the water.

It is commonly observed that the interests of the proprietors of salmon
fisheries are not identical throughout the entire extent of the stream, occasioning
a clashing of views which are inimical to the fisheries, and consequently to the
general public. The proprietors of fisheries living in the higher waters of our
rivers argue that pollutions are permitted unchecked access in the lower reaches,
that immoderate netting is almost continuously carried on, giving the fish, except
in the close time, but little chance of escape. Thus the upper proprietors see but
few fish, excepting during the breeding season, when it is illegal to capture them.
They are in a manner " clucking hens," whose duties seem to be to take care the
eggs are hatched, rear the fry, and speed the parting guest as it descends to the
sea, from whence nets and other obstructions and pollutions in the lower portions
of the river will most probably prevent their ever re-ascending ; or else merely in
sufficient numbers to maintain a sufficient supply for the lower waters. Official
statistics are misleading, as they ought to show the yearly quantity of salmon
taken in each portion of every river, not the number of boxes of salmon received
at Billingsgate. It cannot be a source of surprise if the breeding grounds are not
strictly preserved : for the rearing of salmon is asserted to be done at the
expense of the local fish, which are residents of the upper waters.

A. Deciduous teeth on the body of the vomer, which are usually shed at an early
age (Salmones).

a. About eleven rotos of scales in an oblique line from the adipose dorsal fin to the
lateral-line.

1. Salmo salar,* Plate CX, fig. 1 (old), 2 (young), and CXI, fig. 1.

Salmo, Salv. p. 100 ; Aldrov. iv, p. 483 ; Belon. De Aquat. i, p. 277, c. fig. ;
John. Pise. 1. ii, t. i, c. i, p. 100, t. xxi, f. 12 ; Rondel. De Pise. Fluv. p. 167 ;
Willugh. p. 189, t. N 2, fig. 1, 2 ; Schonev. p. 64 ; Gesner, De Aquat. p. 969 ;
Ray, p. 63, and pi. cxi, fig. 1. Salmo, no. i, Artedi, Synon. p. 22, and Spec,
p. 48 ; Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 115. Salmo, no. 2, Artedi, Species, p. 50. Sawmon,
Duham. Peches. ii, p. 192, pi. i, f. 1, 2. Salmon, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed. 1776) iii,
p. 284, pi. lviii, f. 143 and (ed. 1812) iii, p. 382, pi. lxix. Samlet, Pennant, 1. c.
(ed. 1776) iii, p. 303, pi. lix (ed. 1812) iii, p. 404, pi. lxx.

Salmo salar, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 509 ; Miiller, Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 48 ;
Bloch, i, p. 175, t. xx (female) t. xcviii (male) ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1364; Bl. Schn.
p. 398 ; Lacep. v, p. 159; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 103 ; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 159,
pi. lxv, f. 261, 262 ; Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 179 ; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 156 ; Nilsson,
Skan. Fauna, Fisk. p. 370 ; Jardine, Edin. New Phil. Journ. viii, p. 46, and Brit.
Salmonidas, pi. i, ii, vii and viii; Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fish. p. 140, pi. xci,
f . 1 (head) ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 421 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 1, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) ii, p. 1 (Ed. 3) i, p. 155 ; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 118, pi. xxx,
xxxi, and xxxii, f. 1, 2 ; Agassiz, Poiss. d'eau douce, pi. i and ii ; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 287 ; White, Catal. p. 74 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 151 ; Kroyer, Dan.
Fiske, ii, p. 540 ; Mitchill, Fauna New York, p. 434 ; De Kay, p. 241. pi. xxxviii,
fig. 122 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 143 ; Schlegel, De Dieren. p. 126,
pi. xiii, f. 1 ; Blanchard, Poiss. France, p. 448 ; Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 11 ; Collett,
Norses Fiske, p. 155 ; Malm, Fauna, p. 534; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 525.

Salmo salmo, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 169, pi. 614.

Salmo salmulus, Ray, p. 63 ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 104 ; Jardine, 1. c. xviii,
p. 56 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 426 ; Parnell, "Wern. Mem. vii, p. 278, pi. xxxii,
tig. 1 and pi. xxx, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 138, pi. xxxii (young).

Salmo nobilis, Olafs. Isl. Reise, i, p. 83 ; Pallas, Zoo. Rus. Asiat. iii, p. 342.

* The literature belonging to this fish is so extensive that it has been necessary to omit a large
number of references. ^

SALMONIM). 67

Sahno hamatus, Cuv. Regne Anim. ; Cuv. and Val. xxf, p. 212, pi. 615.
Salmo gracilis, Couch, Report, Royal Cornwall Polytec. Soc. 1859 and Fish.
Brit. Isles, iv, p. 216, pi. ccxvi.

Salmo argenteus, Giintlier, Catal. vi, p. 86 (not Cuv. and Val.).

Salmon, Russell, 1864, pp. 234; Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 163, pi. ccxi.

B. xi-xii, 13-14 (&=*), P. 14, V. 9, A. 11 (|:)/0, C. 19, L. 1. 120-125, L. far. H-H
Vert. 59-60, Coec. pyl. 53-77.

Body rather elongate, with the abdominal profile more curved than that of the
back. The proportions of one part, of the body to the remainder vary consider-
ably in this fish, thus in the young we find a comparatively large head and eyes,
a short snout and rounded body, &c, : but as the adult stage is attained there is
greater depth of the body due to a more prominent abdomen. After bi'eeding, the
kelts are recognizable by low, lanky bodies and long heads. The length of the
head varies with age and sex, being comparatively slightly longer in the parr than
in the female grilse or salmon, while in the male salmon it is longer than in the
female. Length of head from 4j to 4| or even 5 in the parr and male salmon to
5 or 5i in the female salmon and grilse, while in barren males it is similar to
what is seen in females, of caudal fin from 6 in the parr to 7\ in the salmon,
height of body, which is greatest beneath the origin of the dorsal fin, 4 to 5 in
the total length. Eye situated slightly in front of the middle of the length of
the head (or in the middle of that length in breeding males) and comparatively
much smaller in adult than in young fish : interorbital space convex and equal
to about 2/3 the length of the postorbital portion of the head. Snout much pro-
duced in the male, and during the breeding season the extremity of the lower
jaw is provided with a strongly curved prominence which precludes the closure of
the two jaws. The posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the
middle of the eye in the parr but beyond its posterior extremity in the adult :
while it is comparatively wider in the young than in the adult. Opercle higher
than wide, from about 1/5 more in the parr, or 1/4 in the grilse or young salmon,
and 1/2 in large salmon : subopercle from 1/2 to 1/3 of the height of the opercle,
while its posterior margin forms a semi-circular curve along with that of the
opercle.* Preopercle with its angle rounded and having a rather distinct lower
limb. Teeth in a single row in the jaws and palatines, the pre-

maxillary ones being rather stouter </ \ than those in the mandibles, while
the maxillary and palatine ones are still smaller. In adults the teeth

are often found to be larger in the /. s jaws of males than in those of
females. Head of the vomer without (; teeth, which are mostly in a single

row along its body, and which are gradually lost at an early age, com-

mencing from behind forwards, so fgj that in a half-grown or adult

salmon only 1 to 4 are present, the anterior 2 of which are occasionally

in a double row : in the parr and smolt a double row exists along

the body of the vomer which \. .'/ anteriorly is usually armed with
4 teeth placed in a single row. ^ Three to six sharp curved teeth

on each side of the tongue. Fins Mature fish have the fins shorter and more
rounded than is seen in sterile ones. The rayed dorsal fin is a little longer at its
base than is its highest ray. Pectoral in adults as long as the head excluding the
snout, and does not reach half-way to the ventral, whereas in the parr it extends
2/3 of the distance. Ventral in adults reaches half-way to the base of the anal in
the parr 2/3, anal one-fourth higher than its base is long. The form of the caudal
alters with sexual development : in the young parr it is deeply cleft (see pi. ex,
f. 2) up to 2 or2| feet in length, it is as a rule truncated, while with advancing age
it becomes more square. Scales in the caudal portion of the body they are
larger in this than any other British species of the genus, there being from 11 to 12
rows in an oblique line running from behind the adipose dorsal fin downwards and

* In Yarrell it is correctly observed that what distinguishes Salmo solar from all other species is
the form of the opercular bones, which show a rounded outline to the posterior edge of the gill-covers,
the longest diameter of which to the nose would be in a line through the eye, while in all othor
British migratory species the same line would pass below the eve.

5*

68 PHYSOSTOMI.

forwards to the lateral-line. The skin on the back of old males both during and
subsequent to the spawning season becomes thickened and spongy, causing the
scales to be imbedded. Ccecal appendages varying from about 50 to 80.
Colours. In adults superiorly of a steel blue, becoming lighter on the sides
and beneath. Mostly a few rounded or x-shaped spots scattered over the body
above the lateral-line and upper half of the head, being more numerous in the
female than in the male. Dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins dusky black : ventral
and anal white, the former grayish internally. Prior to entering fresh waters
these fish are of a brilliant steel blue along the back which becomes changed to a
muddy tinge when they enter rivers. After these fish have passed into f resh waters
for the purpose of breeding, numerous orange streaks appear in the cheeks of the
male, and also spots, or even marks of the same, and likewise of a red colour on the
body. It is now termed a " red-fish." The female, however, is dark in colour
and known as a " black-fish." Smolts are bluish along the upper half of the body,
silvery along the sides, due to a layer of silvery scales being formed over the
trout-like colours, while they have darker fins than the yearling pink but similar
lateral bands and spots (see pi. ex. fig. 2) which can be seen (as in the parr)
if the example is held in certain positions of light. Parr have two or three black
spots only on the opercle, and black spots, also orange ones along the upper half of
the body and no dark ones below the lateral-line, although there may be orange
ones which are seen along its course. Along the side of the body are a series
(12 to 15) of transverse bluish bands wider than the ground colour and crossing
the lateral-line, while in the upper half of the body the darker silvery colour of
the back forms an arch over each of these bands. A row of spots along the
middle of the rayed dorsal fin, and the adipose orange tipped.

Varieties. Although among the British Salmonidce, when not kept in any
unnatural condition, the salmon is perhaps the species in which the fewest
variations are seen, still some, affecting either its form or its colour, are
sometimes present.

In form. Are more commonly perceived among the young artificially
hatched, two or even more heads may be found, one with three heads was born
in the spring of 1879, but as soon as the yolk sac was absorbed the fish died
(Anglers' Note Book, p. 79). Arrests of development, as of the upper or under
jaw, of one or more fins, or other portions of the body, or spinal curvatures are
occasionally observed. It may be mentioned that fish salesmen and some
fishermen believe they can tell from external appearances the river the various
salmon have come from. Salmo argenteus, Gtinther,* is a kelt-like form, its
elongated condition being due to disease or starvation, probably the latter as
it had been kept in a fresh water pond. It is another form of Salmo gracilis,
Couch. Degeneration in size when present may be quite distinct from degenera-
tion in structure or function.

In colour. Occasionally quite brown salmon are captured in fresh waters,
especially towards the close of the season, which would appear to be due to a
prolonged fresh water residence. Mr. Ffennel recorded having captured them of
a copper colour in the early lakes having the ova not very far advanced.

Navies. Speaking generally this fish in its full-grown condition is known as
the salmon; one on its second return from the sea is often termed a gerling
in the Severn, or a botcher on its first return when under 51b. weight ; although
ihe more general designation is grilse; when under 21b. weight it is usually
termed salmon-peal by fishmongers. From one to two years old, before it has
gone to the sea it is known as a parr, pink, smolt, smelt, salmon-fry, sprag,
or salmon-spring (Northumberland), samlet, brandling, fingerling, black-fin, blue-fin,
shed, shegger, gravelling, hepper, laspring, gravel laspring, sherling, or sparling in
Wales. A third year salmon is known as & pug (Halliwell). In Northumberland
a " milter " or spawning male is known as a summer-cock or gib-fish,&nd a salmon

* The spots on the head, dorsal fin, and body are more what is generally seen on Salmo trutta,
otherwise the fish is identical with S. salar, but reliable characters would scarcely be expected to be
well marked in a tish either ill or nearly starved, anyhow as lean and lanky as a kelt (pi. cxi,
fig. i).

SALMONID^E. 69

as a simen. In the Severn a salmon which has remained in fresh water during the
summer without going to the sea is termed a latcrel. After spawning this fish is a
kelt or slat, but a male is generally termed a kipper, and a female a si tedder or a
baggit. In the Ribble, according to Willughby, salmon of the first year are termed
smelts, of the second year sprods, of the third year morts, of the fourth year fork-tails,
of the fifth year half-fish, of the sixth year salmon. Dr. Davy also observes that
mort and sprod are names used in Cumberland indiscriminately to the salmon and
salmon- trout. In an old work we are told that in the north of Scotland the fry
were termed brood and cocksper. In Ireland, Sampson remarked upon a samlet
or jerkin which Tighe terms a ginkin, but the term parr is more frequently
employed to the north and gravel-ing to the south. At Kerry a kelt is termed
judy, and Rutty stated that a grilse was known as a grawl. Welsh, caivg, malo
salmon : cemyw hwyddell, female salmon : spawning, maran, or a salmon on his
third return from the sea (Severn). Be Zalm, Dutch. Le Saumon, French.*

Habits. The salmon, as already observed, is an anadromous fish, which enters
rivers mostly for the purpose of depositing its spawn in a locality where its eggn
will be hatched and its fry reared, while it has also been surmised that some do
so to get rid of the marine parasites adhering to them. During the summer
months it roams along our coasts in search of food, and may be found
close in shore many miles from where any fresh water enters the sea, loitering in
estuaries and also at the mouths of rivers at which it purposes ascending. Clean
salmon are much earlier in some rivers than in others, as the Thurso in Scotland,
which contains them in December and January, as does also the Naver in
Sutherlandshire. As a general rule such Scotch rivers as debouch into the
German Ocean and Pentland Firth are early rivers, while those emptying them-
selves into the Atlantic are late. It has been suggested bv Mr. Young that the
German Ocean is a cold sea, and the slight difference between its water and
those of the rivers, induces salmon to ascend early. Whereas rivers on the west
coast mostly descend from snow-fed sources and are consequently cold, much
colder than the Atlantic, consequently the salmon wait until the snow-floods have
ceased. But the Dee, in Aberdeenshire, also the Spey, are early rivers, although
snow-fed at their sources. In Yorkshire their ascent as fresh run fish varies
greatly, and is dependent upon the state of the rivers if either July, August,
or September are wet the salmon commence running from the sea if otherwise,
their ascent is delayed until the autumn rains set in (Yorkshire Vertebrata, p. 126).
Migrating up rivers commences as the water is fining subsequent to a flood, or on
the occurrence of a spate or rise, and the fish passes up with an inflowing tide.

In their migrations from the sea to their breeding grounds these fish have to
overcome any obstructions as weirs, which frequently can only be surmounte 1
during a heavy flood. They are found to be alarmed at tempests or violent noises,
on the occurrence of which they may even return towards the ocean, which
they will likewise do should very cold or frosty weather set in. If the season,
howevei*, is mild and their course unimpeded they sport from pool to pool, and
thus gradually ascend to the higher reaches of the river. In some streams it
appears most probable that the larger fish head the ascending shoal, because
fishermen have observed that should any such be netted a large haul generally
follows, whereas, if smaller fish are taken the main body seems to have passed.

During their ascent the fish have mostly to keep to the middle or deepest an 1
safest part of a river, where, however, they are constantly pursued by the netter,
this causes them to become shy and they will not lie up, but push on to their
breeding grounds. In their course it is very remarkable wdiat difficulties they
will overcome. Fleming asserted that he had known a salmon leap up over a fall of
30 feet, probably he meant in a succession of jumps from one pool to another, as
from 8 to 10 feet in perpendicular height is rarely exceeded. At impassable
cascades they have been observed to die, consequent upon repeated but fruitless
exertions in attempting to ascend.

* Years ago when I used to fish in the Severn, at or near Shrewsbury, we knew the younger stages
of salmon, especially the March, April, and May shoals, formed of the parr as salmon-fry and the
autumn smolt as the samlet.

70 PHYSOSTOMI.

The salmon appears to possess a homeing instinct which induces them to seek to
return to the rivers where they w r ere originally hred, but instances are occasionally
brought to notice where such could not have been the case. Thus scarcely a year
passes but grilse or salmon are captured off the mouth of the Thames, from
which all these fish have long since been destroyed, due to the polluted state
of its waters. The majority enter rivers prior to the commencement of the
breeding season, others, especially grilse, much earlier, or in companies : many
appear to return to the ocean before they re-ascend at the time of the regular
immigration. A few would seem to pass up and down the river several times
during one year.* In the Rhine, Barfurth observed in 1874, that spawners ascend
from September to November, while there is likewise a barren winter variety
coming sporadically and for a brief season from September until May.

Buckland tells us how a friend of his who owns a well-known island on the
west coast of Scotland, netted a certain pool in his fishery, and out of a number
of fish which he caught, he carefully marked some 20 or 30 : he then put these
fish on board his yacht, and keeping them alive sailed right round his island, then
up a creek to the mouth of the river, and turned them into a lake about half a
mile from the source of the stream from which they had been brought, which,
though close to it, was in no way connected, rising from a different watershed.
It was as though the salmon had been carried from one heel of an enormous
horseshoe round to the other heel, and then taken right into the middle of the
horseshoe and then let loose. During the savie season some of these marked ones
were caught in or near their own pool, to do which they must have come back a
circuit of at least 40 miles, and passed by six or seven tributaries.

When descending seawards a heavy flood often carries away down the stream
weak and spawned fish, but when migrating seawards it would appear that the
fish usually pass gradually into the sea. The migrating salmon fry or smolts keep
to the sides of the river, but having once arrived at the ocean would appear to
seek its depths.

The food consumed by salmon is somewhat varied, for while living in the
ocean they appear to lay in a sufficient stock of fat around the stomach and ccecal
appendages to last them when residing in fresh water, or at least until the
spawning season has passed. I have found the remains of sand-eels, Ammodytes,
herrings, Crustacea and echinodermata in their stomachs. Jardine remarked that
on the Sutherland shores they are often captured on haddock lines baited with
sand-eels. Thompson, in Ireland, also found these fish eating sand-eels, and that
they are occasionally taken in Dundrum Bay upon lines baited with pieces of
mackerel which w r ere laid for mullet. Morrison records having captured salmon
within flood mark, some of which contained two, others three, full sized herrings.
In the British Museum are the remains of a gar-fish, Belone, taken out of a salmon
captured in fresh water, but evidently only lately from the sea. One of 24 lb.
being opened, two trout (size six to a pound) were found inside it (Fishing
Gazette, December 20th, 1879). Parnell remarks upon having discovered the
remains of some food in the lower intestines even when the stomach was empty.
As a rule very little food is found in those residing in fresh waters, while if in roe
they are almost invariably found to be quite empty.

The young parr takes any bait with avidity, and at almost any time, even
when the trout refuses to rise, while their stomachs are often found gorged with
the larva of aquatic insects. Mr. Tegetmeier observed (Pr-oc. Zool. Soc. 1868)
that the smolts which left the Stormontfields ponds in May that year were much
larger than those of the previous season, due to their diet having been changed
from boiled ox liver rubbed down to coarse powder. This season the aquatic weeds
in the ponds had become covered with Limnea peregra, on which they fed greedily
and to which the great increase in size was undoubtedly to be attributed.

Fisheries. As accurate statistics of what at present exist in the British Isles
are unobtainable and fancy has filled in what facts have not proved, I restrict

* Gunther observes that a salmon changing from salt to fresh water and vice versh several times
yearly, only occurs in rivers rilling into the Moray Firth (Introduction, Study of Fish, p. 640).

SALMONID^E. 71

myself to such figures as appear reliable. The returns of the number of boxes
averaging 112 lb. each sent to Billingsgate Market (Young, British Industries,
p. 299), and divided into quinquenial periods, give the following annual
average results :

1847-51. 1852-56. 1857-61. 1862-66. 1867-71. 1872-76. 1877-81.

English and Welsh 56 85 333 860 1,079 1,220 1,330

Scotch- - - 18,372 17,872 16,850 22,086 23,110 26,775 24,214
Irish - - - 4,218 5,131 4,911 8,130 6,858 6,626 5,942

The annual value of the British salmon fisheries has been estimated as follows :
England 100,000, Scotland 250,000, Ireland* 400,000.

It has been questioned whether the amount of salmon in our rivers is really-
much less than was formerly the case. It can be shown that they have been
exterminated from the Stour, the Itchen, the Medway, the Avon, and the
Thamesf in England. In Scotland, the Fifeshire Leven no longer contains salmon,
in the Tay district the Almond, Ericht and Dighty are ruined from pollutions,
and many other rivers are greatly injured. While stopping pollutions has been
found so difficult and expensive, that the polluters appear to have it all their
own way.

Mr. Blake, in 1874, writing of his Irish district, extending from Wicklow
Head to Rossan Point, says that due to pollutions nearly every river in the
county Down has been destroyed as a salmon producer. One reason which
has been advanced as a proof of the diminution in the supply of those rivers
which still contain salmon is stated to be (and likewise denied) that formerly in
indentures of apprenticeship a proviso was usually inserted that the apprentice
should not be compelled to eat salmon more than three days a week. It has been
advanced that this regulation, if it ever existed, may have been for the purpose
of preventing masters giving their apprentices " kelts " as food, which are readily
captured after spawning and might have been salted down. This seems very
unlikely, for if kelts were prohibited by British Legislators from being used
by the rebellious Irish as food (see p. 62) so early as 1645, it is improbable
they would have permitted masters in England feeding their servants upon them.
That such prohibitions were not unknown in other countries can be demonstrated,
thus in Eastern Pomerania on the River Oder and its affluents, the monastic
accounts show that a regulation was in force prohibiting salmon being given
as food more than three days in a week (Gadow).

In Notes and Queries for May, 1857, the following quotation is given from
Coursell's History of Gloucester, " It was a standing condition of apprenticeship
that the apprentice should not be obliged to eat salmon more than thrice a week,
the object being to render him less liable to the leprosy, which after the crusades
in the Middle Ages was a formidable disease, that was supposed to be brought on
or aggravated by the eating of fish." In a History of Worcester (1808, p. 48)
the existence of this proviso is asserted as a well known fact. Mr. Rowell (Land
and Water, July 16th, 1881) observes that this stipulation existed in the north
as may be shown in a very old history of Newcastle, written during the last
century, when salmon were taken there in amazing quantities. The Cromwellian
trooper, Captain Franks, writing of Stirling remarked that " the burgomasters,
as in many other parts of Scotland, are compelled to reinforce an ancient statute,
that commands all masters and others not to force or compel any servant or
an apprentice to feed upon salmon more than thrice a week." At Inverness a
century later Burt tells us salmon sold at one penny a pound.

But we are reminded that it is difficult to compare the price charged a

* In 1879 Ireland exported to England 45,039 boxes of salmon, each averaging 150 lb. weight;
and 50,517 in 1880. .

f We are informed that for several centuries a tithe of Thames salmon had been claimed and
allowed to the Abbot of St. Peter's at Westminster, on the plea that when St. Peter (according to
the legend) came and consecrated that church, he promised the fisherman who ferried him across
the river a plentiful supply of fish provided he ceased fishing on Sundays and gave a tithe ol
his captures to the Abbot. This was paid until 1382 and then stopped, and this is said to
be doubtless the reason why the last salmon was killed in 1833 !

72 PHYSOSTOMI.

century since to what obtains at the present time, because so many disturbing
influences have occurred. And due to temporary large hauls a local super-
abundance of salmon must have occurred along the banks of some of our
best fishing streams, while want of carriage precluded their being distributed
throughout the country in ways now practicable, due to steamers, railways,
improved roads and modes of carriage. Thus in or near seaports, as Berwick,
Pennant, writing in 1776, informs us that the Tweed fish were sent fresh to
London in baskets by sailing vessels, unless the craft was disappointed by
contrary winds, when they were relanded, boiled, pickled and kitted and so
dispatched, while other fresh ones replaced them in the baskets. At the com-
mencement of the season, when a ship was on the point of sailing, a fresh, clean
salmon would sell from Is to Is 6d a pound, and the price at such periods was
from 5s to 9s a stone of 18 lb. 10| oz. weight, but the value rose and fell
according to the plenty or paucity of fish and the prospect of a fair or a foul
wind. In the month of July, when they were said to be more plentiful, the cost
has been known to be as low as 8d per stone, but in 1775 never less than Is 4cZ
and from that to 2s 6d. While to pay the expenses of the salmon fisheries,
Pennant estimated it would be necessary to capture 208,000 fish annually.
About 1780 a Scotch Laird called Dempster of Dunnichen discovered that
salmon packed in ice could be conveyed long distances and in good condition.

Legislation. From time to time laws have been enacted in order to secure a
free passage for breeding salmon from the sea to their spawning-beds, and a safe
descent from thence when unfit for food or too small for consumption. Also for
the purpose of prohibiting any individual riparian proprietor from increasing the
efficiency of his methods of capture to the injury of his neighbour or that of the
general interest. For rivers only hold a supply to a limited amount, and should
a disproportionate capture be made at one spot among the migratory shoals, this
unduly diminishes the share which would otherwise accrue to the owners of
fisheries in the upper waters. It has therefore been held that each fishery is
merely entitled to its share of the general supply. From this fair division, as
I shall have to show, the stationary net-fishers along the foreshores of Scotland,
although of comparatively recent erection, have somehow managed to obtain
exemption, and those structures, never, I believe, legalized, are employed to the
detriment of the river fisheries, and doubtless at some future date will have to be
placed under stringent regulations or prohibited as nuisances, as have been those
in rivers and estuaries which existed for centuries.

The many phases through which salmon legislation in the British Isles has
passed would for its due record require volumes for its full and clear explanation.
At first the primary consideration appears to have been the good of the fisheries,
and devices injuriously affecting them were in the earliest periods of English law
reprobated as public nuisances. Especial attention was drawn in Magna Charta
to how the Crown had attempted to disregard these laws, and permitted certain
individuals to set up cruives or weirs, and it was enacted that " all weirs from
henceforth shall be utterly put down by Thames and Medway, and through all
England, except the sea-coast." What this exception referred to is now a mystery,
as no fixed engines existed along the sea-coast in those times. We find especial
enactments subsequently in the English statutes respecting allowing salmon a close
time. The 13th Edward IV, cap. 47, prohibited the taking of salmon from the
Nativity of Our Lady (September 8th), until St. Martin's Day (November 12th),
in the Humber, Ouse, Trent, Done, Arre, Derwent, Wharfe, Nid, Yore, Swale and
Tees. And in an Act of 1861, polluting and poisoning of rivers, and the use of
lights and spears, was prohibited : fixed engines were declared public nuisances,
and abolished, unless an ancient right to such prior to Magna Charta could be
shown, and even then dams and weirs were directed to possess serviceable fish-passes
or gaps : the mesh of all nets was restricted to 2 inches between knot and knot of
the mesh, and placing gratings across side streams was declared illegal. Unclean
spawning and young fish were to be protected, and an annual close-time was
imposed generally in England between September 1st and February 6th inclusive
with nets, or by angling to November 1st, these times being susceptible of alteration

SALMONIBvE. 73

by an order from the Home Office, but not apparently to increase their length but
merely to vary their incidence. A weekly close-time from noon Saturday to 6 a.m.
on Monday was also imposed. The employment of fish roe for angling, or the
possession of salmon roe or unseasonable fish, subjects the individual to a fine. In
1863 the export of unseasonable fish was prohibited, as it was found that just as
large a quantity were being sent out of the country during the illegal as during
the legal season, and the export in 1862 was double that of 1861.

In the Severn some of the principal regulations which existed in 1740 are
contained in the British Angler, of which the following are a synopsis : A
close-time between September 8th and November 11th, and no young fish to be
captured from the middle of April to June 24th. Salmon nets were to have the
mesh 2^ inches from knot to knot, nor to be above 20 yards long and 2 broad : or
not less than above 50 long and 6 broad in the wing of the net from Ripplelock
Stake (a little above Tewkesbury) to Gloucester Bridge : or above 60 in length,
below Gloucester Bridge : nor shall fish with more than one of these nets at once.

In a digest of the present fishery laws for the Severn district I find the
following regulations among many others : Annual close-time from August 31st
to February 2nd, except for anglers, who are pex-mitted to angle to November 1st :
a weekly close-time of 36 hours. Salmon nets to have the mesh 2 inches from
knot to knot. While it has been unsuccessfully proposed to increase the number
of hours of the weekly close-season, to restrict the length of the nets above
Tewkesbury (Ripplelock Stake) to 100 yards long and 8 broad, and also the
shooting of nets so immediately one after another, as is done near Worcester.*
While some are in favour of abolishing night- netting entirely, as giving the fish
more rest, which if it does diminish the takes to a certain extent likewise removes
the necessity for a night gang (see p. 91).

In Scotland, so long ago as a.d. 1424, we find that a close-time for salmon existed,
and if a poacher exercised his vocation during this period he had to lose his life
or purchase it. The Tweed Act of 1857 was, perhaps, the commencement of a
new era in the Scotch salmon fisheries ; fixed nets were abolished in estuaries and
rivers (but from then until now their legality along the foreshore has not been
decided) : leistering or spearing was prohibited, a weekly close-time legalized, and
the mesh of the nets fixed at If inches between knot and knot. Both the period
of time and the distance which should extend between the working of nets was
likewise laid down, while the killing of foul fish was prohibited during the legal
season for capture. Subsequently other laws, somewhat similar to the English
ones, have been passed, except fixed engines in the sea have been left alone.

Space will not permit remarks upon the nature of the tenure by which salmon
fisheries are held. Russell observes that in England they were recognized,
protected and regulated as property by Magna Charta, and both in England and
Ireland began to be legislated for as property at least 600 years ago, while in
Scotland the property, besides having legal recognition equally ancient, has in
mu'titudes of cases been separated for centuries from the soil.

The legalized open season for salmon fishing in the United Kingdom this year
was with few exceptions as follows :

England . Rods from Feb. 1st to May 1st until Sept. 30th to Nov. 29th.
Nets Feb. 2nd April 1st Aug. 14th Sept. 30th.

Scotland . Rods Jan. 11th,, Feb. 25th Sept. 14th Nov. 20th.
Nets ., Feb. 5th Feb. 25th Aug. 26th Sept. 14th.

Ireland . Rods ,, Jan. 1st ,, June 1st ,, Sept. 14th Nov. 1st.
Nets ,, Jan. 1st ,, June 1st ,, July 16th ,, Sept. 30th.

The reason why angling is permitted for some time after net fishing has
ceased is to give persons in the upper reaches of rivers some chance of capturing

* One of the most killing plans of taking salmon I have seen is carried on in the tidal waters
below Chepstow. A line of boats is anchored across a tideway, and a large lave net is let over the
side of each with its mouth to the incoming tide. The bag of the net is sufficiently long to be
brought under the boat and held by the hand on the up-river side. On a salmon striking this lave
net the bag end is let go, and the lave net side (resembling a huge landing net) is elevated : and
thus salmon are taken in quantities.

74 PHTSOSTOMI.

late fish, as now they are hardly visited by salmon except during the breeding
season, due to excessive netting in the lower waters. Spawners will rarely take
a fly, and as there are always some clean run fish in the river, this angling can do
very little injury* as unseasonable ones if hooked have to be returned to the
water.

Means of capture. The different methods used for taking salmon within the
limits of the British Isles may be classed under (1) such as are carried on in
the open sea or along the foreshore of the ocean : (2) those in estuaries or tidal
portions of rivers : and (3) those in fresh waters above tidal influence.

I have remarked that salmon roam along the coast in seai'ch of food and when
doing so swim close in shore, enabling them to be intercepted by means of
stationary engines during their journeys, either in the meshes of the stake nets
or chambers of the bag net, contrivances illegal in England, Wales, and Ireland,
but permitted in Scotland.

The injury done to fisheries by these erections in Scotland is excessive (they
have been properly condemned as nuisances elsewhere) and as examples I take
two cases in point from Russell and Bertram. Fixed nets were erected in the
Firth of Tay, 1799, and finally declared illegal in 1812. The takes of the two
fisheries immediately above the highest of these nets were as follows :

Ten years before stake-nets, annual take 10,87-1 salmon, 2,211 grilse.
during ,, 6,700 2,429

after ,, 11,316 11,220 ,,

The number of boxes of salmon each containing 100 lb. of fish shipped from
the River Tay fisheries in 1812, the last year of the fixed nets, was 1175 ; but in
1819, after they had been completely removed, 5694. About 1821 they com-
menced being used on the open or ocean coast of Forfarshire, and were in effective
numbers, about 1825, with the result of reducing the captures in the two Tay
fisheries already referred to by one-half. The takes in the fixed engines, which
now exist along the coast in numbers, is carved out of the fish which would have
pertained to the river fisheries, and due to their existence the produce in two
Aberdeenshire rivers was computed to have been reduced by nearly 18,000 a
year (Russell, where a full account of these fisheries will be found). Bertram,
likewise, informs us of the produce of the Kinfauns fisheries on the Tay, near
Perth, for the same period :

Average annual capture before stake-nets . . . 8720 salmon, 1714 grilse.
,, ,, ,, for 10 years during ditto 4666 ,, 1616 ,,

1815 to 1824 .... 9010 8709 ,,

In estuaries and tidal portions of rivers sweep nets or seine nets are employed,
mostly by one end to which a rope is attached being fixed or held on shore, while
the body of the net being in a boat is rowed round a semi-circle of the stream,
and payed out by the boatman. Drift nets can be worked down the centre of the
stream, or round bushes, or from both banks if the river is sufficiently narrow,
but for the various modes of capture the reader must refer to the introduction.
Even here angling is occasionally successful, and a few years since a boy fishing
with a worm in the Severn, at Upper Parting, a short distance above Gloucester,
took a 10 lb. salmon. Live bait has likewise been successfully employed within
tidal influence, and even the artificial fly.

In the fresh waters above tidal influence these fish may be taken by fixed
engines, nets, angling, or poaching devices, while dogs have even been trained
to assist fishermen in their avocations. It will be impossible here to enter upon
the various modes in which fly-fishing for this the "king of fresh water fishes "
is carried on.' How the tyro is warned to be careful not to strike too soon, but
when he does to do so with no uncertain stroke, with the pros and cons as to whether
to employ a gaff or a landing net, and how to wade, fish from a boat, or a coracle.

* It has been observed (Eden, Fortnightly Review) that taking nine rivers in 1880, those who
bred the fish took 1237, those who netted them 52,563. In the Severn rods captured 15 fish and
nets 16,000, including the estuary. While in the Field (Nov. 5th, 1881) it is asserted that up to
November 1st not a single fish had been taken with the rod throughout the season, between the
tideway and Shrewsbury.

SALMONID^E. 75

The best adapted rod, the reel, the line, and more especially the description of flies
employed, differ in different waters, and as the last resemble nothing that is
to be found in the air, earth, or silvery streams, the would-be-angier had best con-
sult local adepts in the gentle craft and cunning books on this engrossing subject.
Breeding. The number of eggs which each female salmon produces has been
estimated at about 900 for every pound weight of the parent fish, but they may
exceed these, thus one weighing 201b. contained 27,850 eggs. The period of
spawning varies to a certain extent with the locality, seasonableness or the reverse
of the weather, and several other circumstances, but is usually considered as
extending from the commencement of September until the middle of January.
At Stormontfield on the Tay netting for spawning salmon usually commences
about Martinmass (November 11th), but in 1881 no fish were ripe until December
22nd or 23rd. The time during which a salmon is in a river for spawning
purposes can rarely be less than three months, but such must be regulated by
many causes as distance to be traversed, accessibility, temperature, etc. But
there are certain fishes in which abnormal development occurs, and fresh run
salmon with developing ova have been captured at unusual seasons of the year,
thus in the Field of April 30th, 1881, one 15 lb. weight, with ova the size of number
six shot, was recorded as having been lately captured in the Severn above
Shrewsbury. In July this year I saw a male salmon from the Severn in its full
breeding livery.

It has been pointed out that clean salmon ascend rivers late in the winter
or in the early spring, but as they swim deeper than spawners they are less
likely to ascend fish passes. While netting the Teith on December 23rd, 1881,
five were taken (Land and Water, January 28th, 1882) : these fish could not have
been ascending to spawn, so must have passed the winter in the sea, showing that
it is not an invariable rule that they breed every year. On the other hand, Buist
saw a grilse spawned at the Tay fishery which was carefully marked and returned
to the water, the following year at the same spot it was captured as a salmon full
of ova. After a certain age they cease propagation and overgrown ones are found
to be barren, while male parr are mature at seven or eight inches in length.

Late fish when forming their redds frequently rout up those which were
existing in the same spot and consequently many ova are carried away down
stream. It has been remarked that this procedure permits of any diseased eggs
being carried away and not left to contaminate the good ones : but it does not
seem improbable that such treatment is worse than the disease. In some seasons
when the water in the rivers is too low for breeding fish to ascend they deposit
their ova at the mouths or in the sea, occasioning the loss of the year's
supply of eggs. For when the ova are ripe for extrusion the female has no power
to retain them, and even the muscular exertion of swimming might cause their
expulsion as she possesses no sphincter muscle to assist in their retention. It is
different in the male which is furnished with a duct for the ejection of the milt.

I have already observed (p. 65) upon salt water or impurities proving
destructive to the eggs of the salmon, while muddy or deep rivers would be
equally inappropriate for forming redds in. These fish consequently push up to
ay here the water is clear and form their nests in the main stream or one of its
tributaries. Mr. Jackson has made some interesting observations upon whether
the male salmon impregnates the whole stream, which has an important bearing
upon the question of hybrids. He found that on placing the spermatozoa under
the microscope no two touched one another ; they all moved slowly about, and
kept constantly at or near the same distance apart as possible. On being further
diluted with water, the same result was produced, the distance being enlarged,
and it was not until the water was supplied to such a degree that it was
impossible to suppose they could fill it and yet preserve communication with one
another that the regularity of the pattern disappeared, and even then they kept
far away from one another. It appeared as if the phenomena observed were
intended to distribute the milt in such a manner that no egg could possibly miss
getting hit if it came within range, which led him to conclude that the whole
water of a salmon river, or at least of the small tributaries in which they

76 PHYSOSTOML

principally breed, is thoroughly impregnated : he likewise remarked that the milt
kept in water retained vitality for three days. Should the male by any accident
be killed during the time the female is spawning she consoles herself with another
mate, and it is possible that even a parr would be sufficient in order to render the
ova fertile. In January, 1837, Shaw took a female salmon 14 lb. weight from its
spawning bed and a male parr 1J oz. in weight, impregnating some of the eggs of
the former with the milt of the latter, and the young were similar to those raised
from two adult salmon. The male as a rule keeps guard near his partner,
probably for the purpose of keeping other males at a distance, and it is recounted
in the Zoologist (1847, p. 1650) that two had an encounter in the spawning
season between Glenferness and Dulcie Bridge, apparently for the possession of
a female, and at last one floundered dead to the surface, the victor having torn
oft' the flesh along the back from the head to the tail, and down to the very bone.
It has been held by some that during the breeding season there is an excess of
male fish over females ; others account for this by the males being in a more
exhausted condition than those of the feminine-gender, consequently more of
them are taken : females likewise appear to be more crafty.

Salmon eggs, though apparently tough and elastic, are nevertheless exceedingly
delicate, and Mr. Nichols tells us how Mr. Ramsbottom w-as carrying three soda-
water bottles containing some salmon ova, slung in a handkerchief to prevent
concussion, one slipped from the hand and fell to the earth, and not a single
ovum out of this bottle was hatched, while those in the others taken at the same
time did well. Even pouring water on eggs in a careless manner has been known
to kill the ova, and the like result is recorded due to using a nail instead of
a screw in fastening a small box of ova. It has been shown that the nearer
the eggs are to hatching the better will they bear transmission.

It has been calculated by Stoddart and others that if salmon eggs are left to
nature the produce is about four or five fish fit for table for every 30,000 ova
deposited, whereas the same number are obtained from every 800 eggs artificially
protected. Although these figures are founded upon calculations some of which
may be fallacious, still it is abundantly obvious that the number of reared fish
from eggs left to nature is far less than what obtains in those artificially
propagated. In the Tay the augmentation in the number of fish was as much as
10 per cent., an increase not apparent in rivers in which this mode of fish
cultivation was not carried on. Consequently a plan commenced being adopted of
obtaining the ova from the fish and rearing them artificially. The number of eggs
thus removed is but a small percentage of those in the stream, and it has been
ascertained that eggs still retain their vitality in a female salmon that has been
dead two hours or even more, and that they have been successfully vivified from
the milt of a live male.

The mode in which fish are stripped varies ; should the examples be very
ripe, slight pressure will occasion eggs to pass from the female and milt from the
male, or a little extra pressure may be necessary. Some add the milt to the ova
when the latter are in water, others prefer omitting the use of water. The eggs
are now removed to a place prepared for their hatching and rearing the young
fish, and where a constant supply of water, at a required temperature, is artificially
kept up.

During incubation these eggs should be kept dark and the opaque ones removed,
or they contaminate others in their vicinity. Too great a temperature affects
the eggs as already observed (page 65). Sir J. Gibson-Maitland has remarked
that the eggs taken early in the season are the most fruitful and produce the
strongest fry. The young begin to pine when the thermometer marks many
degrees above 55 : they require an increased flow of water and conceal them-
selves under any available shade as the light affects them. Other fish, some
mammals, birds, Crustacea, and insects seek them out as food, irrespective of which
they are liable to gill fever or a fungus due to uncleanliness may appear upon the
back of the weaker fish. The young, after the absorption of the umbilical sac,
are fed upon various animal substances, care being necessary that such food is
wholesome, and that the supply does not exceed the demand.

SALMONID^. 77

Mr. Youl and Mr. Wilson first attempted the introduction of salmon and trout
into Australasia in 1860, the experiment failed as did also that tried in 1862.
Dr. Davy in his experiments upon salmon eggs ascertained that when exposed to
dry air at the ordinary temperature they rapidly died ; that their vitality was as
well preserved in moist air as in water, while ova placed in ice were not affected
unless lowered many degrees below the freezing-point. If the water in which the
eggs were, was heated to 80 or 82 Fah., they could stand it with impunity for a
moderate period, but 84 or 85 was fatal.

Sir J. Richardson (Yarrell, Brit. Fish. ed. 3, 1859, p. 215) remarked, " Dr.
Davy's observations lead one to believe that the attempts which are making to
transfer salmon and trout from England to Tasmania and New Zealand, wi 11 not
succeed, unless the temperature of the water be kept down by ice during the
passage through warm latitudes." Mr. Youl, however, was the first person who
successfully employed ice for the purpose of conveying trout and salmon ova through
the tropics. It would appear that some trout ova which he had placed amongst
moss in a deal box and imbedded in the ice room on board " The Beautiful Star,"
lived from March 4th to May 17th when the ice failed. Further investigations
showed that for the preservation of the vitality of salmon ova a continuous stream
of water is not essential : that partial deprivation of air is not fatal, while light is
not necessary.*

Life history. The young salmon, generally known as a parrf or pink, and
hatched out early in the year, is adoraed with brilliant trout-like colours, as have
been already described (page 68). These young fish reside two years (or in
rare instances one) in our rivers, and migrate in the succeeding or third spring,
to the sea as smolts. Many discussions have arisen as to whether a parr is or is
not the young of the salmon, or even a hybrid between it and the trout, and
though there exists a strong family resemblance between the young of the various
species of salmonida?, most of the fresh water or anadromous forms passing
through a parr stage, still it has been abundantly proved that the young salmon
itself invariably commences life as a parr. It was long since pointed out that
in rivers destitute of salmon there were no parrs : while if salmon existed
parrs were present. This point has now been most conclusively decided by
hatching out eggs taken direct from the salmon and artificially propagated
and the young reared, the result being parrs as may be seen at the present
day in any fish-breeding establishment. It has also been shown that similar
parr, passing through the same subsequent changes and gi'owing at about
the same rate, were raised by the artificially propagated eggs of smolts and
salmon : grilse and salmon : pure grilse : or pure salmon. At the same establish-
ment a suggestion which had been advanced that the anomaly of some parrs
migrating after one year the remainder after two seasons was due to the first being
the produce of salmon and the second of grilse was refuted. The whole of the
fry, numbering about 200,000, were the produce of 19 male and 31 female salmon
spawned in 1859, some remained as parr while others migrated as smolts.
Although about two centuries since it was shown that parr were young salmon,
such was not generally admitted until Mr. Shaw, in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, furnished the public with a trustworthy account of the
changes occurring in the young salmon. He took seven small ones (parrs) on
July 17th, 1833, and placed them in a pond supplied by a stream of wholesome
water : they throve until April 1834, when a change came over their external
character they having assumed the state of salmon smolts. In March, 1835, the
same observer transferred twelve parrs, each about six inches long, from the river
to a pond, and they, by the end of April, assumed the smolt stage. From the
foregoing he concluded that the larger parr present in the rivers in autumn, winter,
and early spring is in reality the actual salmon fry advancing to the conclusion
of its second year, and that the smaller parr, termed in some places, " summer

* Detailed information may be found in Fish Culture, by Mr. Francis Francis, and Fish
Hatching, by the late Frank Buckland ; also in several other works.

f Jardine considered " the parr not only distinct, but one of the best and most constantly marked
species we have " (Jamieson's Phil. Journal, 1835).

78 PHYSOSTOML

parr," is the younger individual of the same species only entering upon its second
year. On instituting a careful examination on May 15th, 1834, of a river where
salmon had spawned the preceding winter, Mr. Shaw found a vast number of
very small but active fish above an inch in length, some of which were placed in
two ponds. In May, 1835, these fish were on an average 3| incbes in length and
corresponded in every respect with the parr of the same age which occurred in
the river, in May, 1836, they were transmuted into smolts and measured 6^ inches
in length.

A number of parr were placed in the Brighton Aquarium in a fresh water
tank, and when the month of May came round some had assumed the livery or
protecting silvery scales of the migratory smolt. Sea water was now gradually
introduced and all became smolts, thus showing that saline water is not necessai'ily
fatal to parr as generally supposed, at least at the time they are on the verge of
attaining their smolt condition.

Mr. Ashworth, in certain experiments which were instituted at Stormontfield,
near Perth, showed that a portion of the parr assumed the smolt dress and
descended to the sea shortly after the close of the first year of their existence,
returning again as grilse weighing from 5 to 9~ lb. within 20 months subsequent
to the deposition of the ova, while some of the same lot remained behind as pai'rs,
weighing an ounce at the period of the return of their brothers and sisters above
referred to. It has also been remarked that whether a river is an early or late
one the descent of the smolt generally occurs during the spring, between March
and June. Mr. Dunbar who annually hatches about 500,000 in the Thurso river,
in the county of Caithness, informed Mr. Young that about eight per cent, became
smolts at the end of the first year, and about 60 per cent, at the end of the second
year, and the remainder or 32 per cent, at the end of the third year.

Having thus far traced the salmon egg to the pink or parr, and on to the
stage of migratory smolt, which congregates in shoals, it becomes necessary to
follow this latter fish until it has migrated to the sea, from which it never
returns, similar to the fish which descended there, but instead a larger form,
weighing more pounds than it did ounces, a miniature salmon in short, and termed
grilse, ascends in shoals. The scales of the silvery smolt come off very readily on
the fish being handled, and underneath may be seen transverse bars, the livery of
the parr.

Mr. W. Brown (Stormontfield Experiments, 1862, p. 7) observed upon
having in February, 1836, caught a dozen and a half of parr in the Tay, he kept
them confined in a stream of running water, and by the month of May the whole
of them had become smolts ; but some had leaped out of their confinement in
their struggle to find their way to the sea, and were found dead upon the side of
the pond. Mr. Upton, in the autumn of 1835 and the following spring, according
to Yarrell, transferred some " pinks," none of which exceeded 3^ inches in
length, from the Lune to a lake termed Lillymere, and which has neither outlet
from other waters by which fish can obtain access, or any obtain exit, and no
communication with the sea. In August, 1837, two salmon peal, measuring
14 inches in length and weighing 14 ounces, were taken with a fly, in excellent
condition in every way, and in July, 1838, another small salmon was caught equal
to the first in condition and colour, about 2 inches longer and 3 ounces heavier.
A " pink " was transferred to a well at Whitewell in November, 1837, and removed
thence as a smolt 6j inches long in July, 1838. These and other similar instances
would appear to point out that, as in the trout so in the salmon, the larger the
extent of the water in which the fish resides, so much the more probable is it that
it will rapidly attain a larger size.

From the foregoing it appears that it is the natural course for smolt to migrate
to the sea, but that a compulsory detention in fresh water is not necessarily fatal,
a subject to which I shall refer further on (see p. 80). When at Montrose at the
end of June this year, several smolts were taken from the stomach of a saithe,
Gadus virens, captured in the sea a couple of miles from the coast. A similar
occnrrence was noticed at the same place in December last year, the fish which
had eaten the smolt being a whiting. When at Aberdeen in July, 1882. Mr. Sim

SALMONID^E. 79

showed me some smolfcs similarly procured from the stomach of a marine fish. In
fact this has been constantly observed at different localities, proving conclusively
that the migratory smolt passes into the ocean.

Smolts which descend seawards have been proved to return to the rivers as
grilse. In the Tweed in various years numbers of these smolts have been marked
by a silver wire having been passed through and fastened to the back part of their
tails. None were obtained the same year, but the experiment was continued
the succeeding season, and several were taken as grilse. The Duke of Roxburghe,
on May 14th, 1855, had a smolt marked by the insertion of a peculiar shaped wire
through its gills ; it was retaken July 21st, 1856, as a grilse, weighing 6^ lb. On
the other hand we are told that in May, 1855, 1300 smolts were marked at
Stormontfield by cutting off the adipose fin, and 22 were recaptured as grilse the
same summer, the first on July 7th, 1855, when it weighed 3 lb. Some excellent
observers are disinclined to believe that it is possible these fish can increase so
rapidly in size that a smolt descending in May a few ounces in weight, could be
capable of returning within two or three months as a grilse of some pounds,
but it is not impossible that as we see differences in the periods of descent
of the parr as smolt, so some smolts may return in one season, the remainder in
the succeeding year. It is very remarkable that grilse do not commence ascending
until two or three months subsequent to the descent of smolts, whereas had they
been upwards of a year in the sea it would appear strange why some few at least
had not put in an appearance, this invariable absence from the nets almost seeming
to point out the probability that they are not present.

Some salmon appear to ascend almost any month of the year, but the grilse
come in large shoals, do not loiter about the mouths of rivers, and may be said to
be summer and autumn visitors. It has been advanced that grilse are not young
salmon, ignoring the fact that only in salmon rivers are there true grilse, and
where they exist there are also salmon. I have in the preceding pages shown
that they are transformations of parr, raised from eggs taken directly from salmon,
that they breed with salmon and that the young are indistinguishable from those
raised when both parents are the true Salmo salar. These grilse return to the sea
as grilse kelts, which reappear in our rivers as salmon. Mr. Toung states that he
has often marked grilse and that they have returned from the sea as salmon.
A grilse kelt of 2 lb. weight was marked on March 31st, 1858, and was recaptured
on August 2nd of the same year as a salmon of 8 lb.

Respecting the rapidity of growth of salmon various experiments have been
instituted. In 1859 the Duke of Athol had three salmon captured, while
migrating seawards, weighing 10, 11^, and 12?j lb. respectively. These were
marked by a copper wire being placed round their tails, and six months
subsequently they were recaptured as they were returning to fresh water, and
their weight was ascertained to have augmented to 17, 18 and 19 lb. respectively.

Having thus briefly detailed the life history of this fish from the egg to the
adult, it becomes necessary to revert to those forms which have completed
spawning. Those, commonly termed kelts, drop down from pool to pool in a very
exhausted condition, the males much more so than the females. They generally
remain in the river in a debilitated state, feeding upon whatever fish comes
in their way, not rejecting the young of their own species. At this period they
are readily captured, and very prone to attacks of disease, often dying in vast
numbers, while a heavy flood carries them off towards the sea, but they as
a rule continue some time in the brackish water of the tideway before seeking
the ocean. Although doubtless a few of these kelts mend in the rivers, recovering
their silvery lustre prior to reaching the sea, and others return at a future
period in a healthy state from the salt water, it seems questionable whether
too many are not now permitted to mend upon the salmon fry, thus reducing the
amount of stock in the river (see page 62). In olden times poachers, assisted by
otters, kept the number of kelts in check.

During the winter season of 1881-82 the salmon disease seriously affected
the Tay and its tributaries killing vast numbers .of kelts, and by some people
a greatly diminished catch was prognosticated for the season of 1882. But the

80 PHYSOSTOMI.

spring and summer fishing was fairly favourable, while in August there was
a large increase both in grilse and salmon : the effects of the mortality seemed to
show itself in the decreased weight of the individual salmon and the paucity of
exceptionally heavy fish, none attaining 40 lb. until the commencement of June.
This would go towards favouring the contention that kelts when mended do
return to the river, but that a great destruction of them does not necessarily
involve a greatly diminished take of salmon the ensuing year.

An experiment of permitting kelts to be destroyed in one river for a single
year, and ascertaining the effect on the stock of salmon and grilse the succeeding
season, appears well worthy of a fair trial.

The question here arises what is an " unclean " and "unseasonable" salmon ?
these terms being employed in Parliamentary language. Certainly a " kelt "
would come under this designation as would also one that is about to spawn or
" red fish " if a male, " black fish " if a female. But the latter could hardly be
termed a foul fish being in its way as good food as is a laying hen or many an
animal. By a clean salmon, on the contrary, is meant one in good health, and
not on the point of spawning.

Siebold has shown that certain individuals are not sexually developed, and he
believed this sterility extended throughout their existence, a view opposed by
Widegren and others, who contend such to be temporary and merely affecting
a few individuals.

Hybridism in a natural state appears to be rare as regards the salmon, but that
such may take place has been proved by Rasch who fertilized their ova with the
milt of the trout and of the charr (see p. 59). It might be worth a trial whether
such hybrids could not be raised for the purpose of populating waters in rivers
wherein pollutions in its lower portions or other causes precludes the ascent of
of the fish. Probably most hybrids would be sterile, and possibly they would not
attempt to migrate, if so the angler could supply his district with fish which
would be good for sport and likewise for the table.

Whether salmon could be permanently retained and breed in fresh waters is a
subject upon which various opinions have been given. The difficulty of offering
an opinion upon this question is that it seems occasionally questionable whether
the recorded instances of such having been successfully accomplished, the observer
refers to Salmo salar, or a sea-trout. Lloyd (Field Sports North of Europe, i, p. 301)
remarks that near Katrineberg there is a valuable fishery for salmon, eleven or
twelve thousand of these fish being taken annually. They are bred in the lake,
and in consequence of cataracts cannot have access to the sea. They are small in
size and inferior in flavour. The year 1820 furnished 21,817. Bertram observing
upon having been present at Stormontfield at the yearly exodus of smolts in 1861,
when they were found to be large and in fine condition continues, " one fish,
which has been detained for three years for the purpose of discovering whether
the species will grow in fresh water without being permitted to visit the sea, was
found to be fully twice the size of the largest smolt " (Harvest of the Sea, p. 110).
It must not be overlooked in experiments of this nature that the extent of the
fresh water in which these fish are confined must exercise a considerable influence
upon the result, and also on the amount of food which is available for their
consumption.

Professor Rasch, of the Christiania University, remarked, " some years ago
Hetting hatched out a number of salmon ova, which he subsequently turned loose
in the Tyri-fiord, and during the last two years fish have been caught in that lake
resembling in every respect ' salmon proper.' It is impossible for them to return
thither, even should they succeed in reaching the sea " (Land and Water, 1866,
pp. 221, 245).

Kipper is a term sometimes used for males after breeding, but which has also
become employed for members of the salmon family that have been detained in
fresh water, and as a consequence become sick, lean and unseasonable (see
S. argenteus, pi. cxi). This term is also employed to old males, and means bony
gristle, which grows from their lower jaw resembling a "hawk's bill," and unless
absorbed, may hinder them from feeding, causing them to pine away and die.

SALMONID.E. 81

Diseases or causes of destruction. Under this head poaching devices will not be
included, but mortality or sickness otherwise induced. For many years, perhaps
from time immemorial, a fungus, Saprolegnia ferax (see Introduction), has existed
to a slight extent in fresh waters, as in our salmon rivers, but which, due to some
cause at present unknown, took an epidemic character in 1678. Since then it
has been chiefly seen in the spring of the year, in some rivers even in the autumn,
and although at first it appeared to be restricted to kelts or fishes in an enfeebled
condition, it has been lately observed to attack clean fish. The fact appears to
be that once this fungus has infected a fish, it may be the nucleus from which
infection spreads, and within twenty-four hours thousands of zoospores, which
may be termed minute germs or seeds provided with cilia, rendering them capable
of spontaneous movements, may become diffused through the water. These germs
arriving at a suitable spot develop into a fungus, and such a place is found in
a fish, where its roots strike downwards into the flesh and its free extremities
come to the surface, forming the white fungus appearance so distinctive of fish
suffering from this disease, and which proves almost invariably fatal from
exhaustion, irritation, or suffocation due to the organs of respiration being affected.
Although sea water appears to check and in some rare instances seems to cure the
disease, it is not improbable that it may only cause it to remain dormant, so that on
returning to fresh waters it is again roused into activity. The following figures
show the virulence of this disease : In the annual report for 1881 of the Tweed
district it is stated that during the last winter the number of fish that died or were
killed in consequence of the fungus disease was 14,627, making a total for three
years of 22,756. As each diseased fish is in itself a focus of infection, doubtless
they ought to be immediately removed from the river and buried. Salmon are
much affected by tape worms, Bothriocephalus, which seem especially to like the
coecal appendages as places in which to reside : a species of Lemea also externally
attacks them when in the sea. They are likewise affected with other internal and
external parasites.

In 1882 a whitling Salmo trutta, f lb. weight, was captured in the Tay, and in
it were 300 fertile salmon ova; while Mr. Ashworth took upwards of 500 salmonoid
eggs from the maw of a trout. Mill-wheels not unfrequently cause the death of
salmon passing beneath them, by direct blows. Obstructions to ascent and descent
are also secondary causes of disease, while pollutions are great sources of mortality,
more especially to the young fish. S molts and even salmon are largely destroyed
while in the sea and estuaries by porpoises, seals, members of the cod-fish family,
and other marine enemies.

As food. -These fish are highly esteemed and cannot be eaten too fresh, while in
selecting them care should be taken, provided there is any choice, to choose those
which are bright and silvery, rejecting such as are of a muddy tinge. During
the winter those which are out of season are dull in colour, their flesh is soft and
white, and they are wanting in flavour if dressed. If the fish is newly captured it
is usual, in order to set the curd, to put it into boiling instead of into cold water.
It may be boiled, but should be removed from the water as soon as done, or both
its appearance and flavour will deteriorate. It is generally dressed with cucumber
and anchovy, lobster, or shrimp sauce. This fish may be baked, done in slices, or
served in a hot or cold pudding.

Salmon is cured in different ways as by simply drying, salting or pickling.
"Kippered" is well-cleansed salmon which has received several dry rubbings of
pepper and salt, then dried either in the air or artificially by means of the smoke
of peat or juniper berries.

Habitat. This fish ranges in the northern hemisphere between latitudes 45 Q
and 75, and examples have even been captured as high as 80 1ST. Lat. In the
United States' report it is stated to range from the Polar regions to Cape Cod.
It extends throughout the seas and countries of Northern Europe, around the
British Isles, and also the Atlantic coast of France, but does not occur in rivers
which flow into the Mediterranean.

It is rare in the Orkneys and Zetland (Baikie), and is found in all suitable
rivers of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, where it has not been destroyed
ii. 6

82 PHYSOSTOMI.

by pollutions, or obstructions render its ascent impracticable. In Great Britain
most numerous towards Scotland : it abounds in all Yorkshire rivers, unless
excluded by pollutions (Yorkshire Vertebrata), less common down the east coast
of Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and round the south coast, the English Channel, but
more frequent in the Bristol Channel, while the Severn salmon are among those
which are most esteemed.

A salmon weighing 25 lb. was captured off Lowestoft in a trawl net (Colman,
Land and Water, May 10th, 1879), being only the second instance since 1849.

Sir T. Browne, 1062, stated that it was no common fish in the rivers in his
time, though many were taken in the Ouse, in the Bure, and in the Waveney, in
the Norwich river but seldom, and in the winter. Paget observes, respecting
Yarmouth, that small ones have very rarely been captured in the mackerel nets. Of
late years they have almost disappeared from the Norfolk coast, and one taken
December 1st, 1873, in a flooded meadow at Lakenham, was considered such a
curiosity that it was sent to London for identification and preservation ; it is
now in the Norwich Museum (Lowe). Yarrell remarks that the last Thames
salmon was captured in June, 1833.

The size to which this fish attains depends upon the extent and character of
the water it inhabits, the quantity and quality of its food, temperature, and other
circumstances. It has been surmised that the very small salmon sometimes
captured are really grilse, which having failed to ascend have to defer such to
the succeeding year, when they have become salmon. The reason why some
Dutch fish are so large is believed to be owing to so many kelts escaping capture.

Pennant mentions one of 741b. Buckland cast one of 70 lb., 4 feet 5 inches
long, taken from the Tay. In 1867 one was taken in the Severn, near Lydney,
in July, weighing over 42 lb. ; another the next month at Beachley, nearly
52 lb. ; and a third in the Wye, near Tintern, over 40 lb. In 1873 one weighing
70 lb. was taken in June at Littleton. In Ireland, Ball recorded two, each
weighing 52 lb., captured at the same time at Blackwater : several instances of
70 lb. fish are alluded to by Thompson, and in July, 1881, an Irish fish upwards
of 84| lb. weight was exhibited at a fishmonger's in Manchester.

The figure of the salmon, plate ex, fig. 1, is of a male 32 inches long, taken
from the Severn. The parr, fig. 2, is slightly reduced from one captured in the
Teme in the month of May. The figure of the kipper, plate cxi, fig. 1, is from
Dr. Gunther's type specimen of Sahno argenteus (not Cuv. and Val.), a female
26 inches long, which had been kept for a short time in a fresh water pond.

b. Fourteen or more rows of scales between the soft dorsal fin and the lateral-line.

Prior to giving descriptions of the various foinns of Salmones, included by
some authors under this head, it appears most appropriate to explain why it is
that I find myself unable to accept these numerous species, believing those
ichthyologists more correct who have considered them modifications of only one,
which, as Salmo trntta, includes both the anadromous and non-migratory fresh
water forms. In following out this inquiry, it will be perhaps best to show
(1) that marine salmonoids may take on a fresh water existence ; (2) that Sahno
trntta and S. cambricus can be both traced into the fresh water forms of the
common brook trout (see page 59), while crossing the ova of one with the milt
of the other gives rise to no remarkable symptoms, and the progeny, if hybrids, are
not steinle. Sir J. Gibson-Maitland, in the winter of 1881, crossed the ova of the
Loch Leven trout with the milt of the sea-trout, and about 95 per cent, hatched.

In order, however, to facilitate reference and draw attention to some phenomena
still requiring elucidation, I have placed as distinct Salmo trntta, with its very
deciduous vomerine teeth, and S. fario, or the brook-trout, with them more
persistent, in short by the parr dentition being continued through life, and a
somewhat different geographical distribution. Also S. levenensis which appears
to be in a transition state from an anadromous marine to a non-migratory fresh
water lake variety.

If sea-trout which having entered fresh water in order to breed, are prevented
returning to the ocean, it may result, as detailed by a correspondent in the Field

SALMONID^E. 83

(January 8th, 1881), that they become, as he found them, big-headed, lank, and
black looking. But there may be a reason for this, as insufficiency or inappro-
priateness of the food in their new home, which precludes their thriving or even
continuing in health. Should, on the contrary, the place prove appropriate, they
may thrive even though they are unable to return to the sea. McCulloch
(Journ. Roy. Inst., no. xxxiv, p. 211) has stated that the salmon-trout is now a
permanent resident in a fresh water lake in the island of Lismore, one of the
Hebrides, and without the power of leaving it or reaching the sea. There it has
been known for a long course of years, perfectly reconciled to its prison, and
propagating without any apparent difficulty. Eggs of the sea-trout havino- been
transmitted to Tasmania, some of the young retained in a fresh water pond (see
pages 84, 86) have bred showing no symptoms of sterility. This breeding has
taken place each successive year since, and the fertility of the ova seems to be
exceptional, for every one of the 142 ova sent to the Otago Acclimatization
Society produced a fish.

It is evident that our anadromous sea-trout may take on a fresh water state of
existence, and breed there ; irrespective of which by imperceptible changes we
find it in every country passing from one form into the other, as I shall give
instances when treating of the different varieties. This, of course, raises the
question of which form Salmo orcadensis, 8. estuarius, &c, most resemble, the
anadromous 8. trutta or the fresh water 8. fario. Admitting the two latter as
being merely the extreme limits of one species, it becomes unnecessary to decide
whether the diminution in the number of the vomerine teeth* is symptomatic
of the fresh water form developing towards its larger relative the anadromous
sea trout, or whether it is the sea trout retrograding towards its parr dentition, or
that which is persistent in the Salmo fario. Colours, it is true, are not very
reliable, but these forms more nearly approach the fresh water than the saline
varieties, a change which appears invariably to occur sooner or later in
anadromous forms which become permanent residents in fresh water.

But although the foregoing tends to prove that anadromous forms may pass
into fresh water non-migratory species, further proofs are necessary that it does
so in this particular instance. The distinction between the two races being
seen first in the comparatively more complete system of dentition in the fresh
water forms, their generally longer heads and decreased number of ccecal
appendages. The dentition varies excessively ; thus we find examples possessing
the colours, form, &c, of the brook-trout resident in brackish waters or even
the sea, but mostly not invariably possessing the limited number of vomerine teeth
of the anadromous form. On the other hand we find anadromous forms (in colour)
passing into fresh water, and the teeth assuming that present in the brook-trout
or retaining their parr dentition. I am unable to see in this, as has been
suggested, hybridization, or more properly speaking, a " graduated hybridiza-
tion," for every gi-adation can be seen, the links in the chain are perfectly complete,
as may be perceived at the British Museum, in the Welsh series of 8. cdmbricus,
or in the 8. trutta of the Tweed. On the other hand, in the same institution
are so called hybrids between the 8. gallivensis, Giinther, and the brook-trout.
The comparative length of the head is likewise subject to variation, there being
both the long-headed and short-headed races of the more south and west sewin,
and also of the sea trout on the east coast of Britain. And, lastly, as regards the
number of ccecal appendages asserted as a character which may materially aid
in discriminating a species. I have already (p. 56) given reasons for declining
to accept this in respect to our fresh water trout, and will now adduce further
ones to show that neither is it reliable in the sea forms. A very instructive
instance is to be found in the case of the ova of sea-trout, which were transmitted
to Tasmania, and one of the adult progeny of which, 18 inches in length, was

* Whether the vomerine teeth are at once replaced when lost, or at certain periods shed, is a
question admitting of doubt. Mr. Harvie Brown has pei-sonally observed that the lingual teeth are
shed in June, July, and August in the brook-trout, new ones mostly taking their place, loose in their
sockets at first and not filling the cavities made by the old cast-oft - ones. Should this be invariable
it shows that the size of the lingual teeth is no criterion as to species.

6 *

84 PHYSOSTOMI.

received in the British. Museum in 1874 ; it externally shows the normal form of
the common sea-trout (plate cxi, fig. 2), but has only 36 ccecal appendages, so
that (if Dr. Giinther's theory were correct) it ought to be a sewin, 8. cambricus.
This difficulty is surmounted by suggesting that this fish is a hybrid, but as
the sewin and the sea-trout are asserted by Dr. Giinther to reside in different
districts, and as only anadromous sea trout were deprived of eggs and milt,
by the manipulators such an occiirrence could not have occurred. These
salmon-trout eggs arrived in Tasmania, May 5th, 1866, were placed in
the breeding ponds, and from them 900 fry were reared. A number,
Mr. Nichol* informs us, of these fry were put into a specially con-
structed pond, fed by a small rill of bright cool water, where they were
disturbed as little as possible. By the middle of October, 1867, many of these
prisoners had put on the smolt dress and no doubt feeling the migratory impulse,
leaped upon the bank in some numbers and perished. In July, 1869, they spawned
in the ponds. It is thus clear that this fish with anadromous instincts was
raised from the eggs transmitted from England, and distinctly demonstrating that
the number of cceca are subject to variations, so useless as a definite guide to
species. If, as shown, changes in climate and food can induce such a marked
difference, that in the Antipodes two forms of sea trout may be detected in one
specimen : if the anadromous forms can be traced step by step and link by link
into the brook-trout, or vice versa : if breeding the two forms together causes
no unusual phenomenon, I cannot resist agreeing with Widegren,f Malmgren,
Collett, Feddersen, Malm, and others, that we are dealing with a single species
subject to almost innumerable modifications in accordance with variations in
climate, locality, and food.

Lastly, it must not be supposed that because (as stated at page 57) British
anadromous salmonoids possess more ccecal appendages than are normally found
in non-migratory trout, that such is everywhere the case. In the British Museum,
these appendages vary among specimens of the Loch Leven trout between 49 and 90,
due either to the convergence of several into one, or the subdivision of one into
two or more. But in this case the fish are residing in a large lake, and do not
appear to be many generations removed from their marine ancestry. It seems that
this large number in lake forms is likewise not unknown elsewhere ; thus the
Salmo marsilii from the lakes in Upper Austria has up to 100, S. lacustris
from Lake Constance, which Siebold considers the same species, has up to 74.
S. venemensis, Giinther, from Sweden, which Malm gives as a variety of the
common brook-trout has at least 62, while our larger forms of lake-trout,
8. ferox, have been found possessing a few in excess of those which inhabit
streams.

The observations of pisciculturists and field naturalists, respecting the
varieties of trout and the modifications to which they are susceptible, may prove
most valuable in unravelling the confusion which has been imported into this
genus. In the following pages I have purposely omitted the enumeration of
some continental forms that doubtless will at a future date be abundantly
proved to be merely species created by naturalists, but unable to stand the test
of a rigorous examination carried on in an extended scale by competent inquirers.

2. Salmo trutta, Plate CXI, fig. 1, and Plate CXII, fig. 1, 2.

Trutta salmonata, Schonev. Ich. p. 65 ; Willughby, p. 193 ; Ray, Synopsis,
p. 63. Salmonata, Sibbald, Scot. no. 25. Salmo cinereus aut griseus, Willughby,
p. 193; Ray, p. 63. Salmo trutta, Linn. Fauna Suec. p. 347; Gronov. Zooph.
no. 367. Salmo, no. 3 and 5, Artedi, Synom. pp. 23, 24, Genera, p. 12, and Species,
p. 51 ; Klein, Pise. Miss. V, p. 16, t. v, f. 1. Sea-trout, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed.
1776) iii, p. 296 (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 347. Bull-trout, Low, Fauna Oread, p. 222.

Salmo trutta, Linn. Syst. Nat i, p. 509 ; Bloch, Fische Deuts. i, p. 143, t. xxi ;
151. Schn. p. 399; Gmel. Linn. p. 1366; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 159, pi. lxv, f. 263;

* " The acclimatization of the salmonidce at the Antipodes."
f Lacepede considered the Salmo trutta identical with S. fario.

SALMONID^E. 85

Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 103 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 323 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 180 ;
Nilss. Skand. Fauna, p. 406 ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 423 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii,
p. 582 ; Jardine, Salmonida?, pi. iii (half groivn) ix, x, and xi, and Edin. New
Phil. Journ. xviii, p. 49 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 1) ii, p. 36, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii,
p. 77 ; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 133, pi. xxxiv, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 293,
pi. xxxiv, f. 11 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 151 ; White, Catal. p. 75 ;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 151 ; Gunther, Catal. vi, p. 22 ; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss.
Wien. 1866, liv, p. 22 ; Houghton, British Freshwater Fishes, p. 93, c. fig. ; Malm,
Fauna, p. 538.

Salmo goedenii, Bloch, p. 135, t. cii (young").

Salmo hucho, Flem. Brit. An. p. 17"9 (not Linn.).

Salmo argenteus, Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 160, pi. lxvii, no. 269 ; Bl. pi. ciii.

Fario argenteus, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 294, pi. 616; Yarrell, Brit. Fish,
(ed. 3) i, p. 250, c. fig. ; Lacepede, v, p. 187; Kroyer, Dan. Fisk. ii, p. 602.

Salmo eriox, Nilss. Skan. Faun. p. 395 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 157 ;
Feddersen, Danske Ferskvansfiske, p. 77.

Salmo truttula, Nilss. Prod. p. 5 (young).

Salmo microps, Hardm. Ofvers. Vet. Ak. Forh. 1861, p. 383.

Trutta variabilis, Gerv. Boul. p. 137.

Salmon-trout, Richards. Faun. Nor. Amer. Fishes, p. 140, pi. xcii, f. i, A and
B. Peal, sewen, sea-trout, salmon-trout, blue-poll, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv,
pp. 214-221, pi. ccxiii-ccxv (see page 88).

Salmo venernensis, Gunther, Catal. vi, p. 110.

Trutta lacustris and T. trutta, Siebold, Siisswasserfische, pp. 301, 314.

Trutta marina, Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 537.

Variety a. Salmo albus, Plate CXII, fig. 2.

White salmon, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 302, and (Ed. 1812) iii,
p. 396.

Salmo albus, Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 75 ; Bonnaterre, Enc. Ich. p. 161 ; Bl. Schn.
p. 409 ; Lacep. v, p. 219 ; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 180 ; Jardine, Edin. New Phil.
Journal, xviii, p. 50, and Salmonida?, plate no. iii ; Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 206 ;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 424.

Salmo phinoc, Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 103.

Herling, Jardine, Berwick. Nat. Club, ii, p. 103.

Salmo eriox, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. An. p. 422 ; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 288,
pi. xxxi-xxxiv, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 128, pi. xxxi-xxxiv ; Flem. Manual,
p. 180.

Salmo trutta, Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 151.

Salmo brachypoma, Gunther, Catal. vi, p. 87 ; Houghton, British Fishes,
p, 107, c. fig.

This form has been deemed a distinct species, principally due to its com-
paratively small head and rather elongated body : while its preopercle has hardly
any lower limb. Among four examples in the British Museum from Dr. Parnell's
collection, that ichthyologist considered the largest as S. eriox, and the remaining
three as S. fario. It is the short-headed race of salmon-trout, mostly found on
the east coast of Scotland and in the Ouse : Jardine states also, in the Solway
Firth. The example figured was 14 inches long.

This variety was known as the White salmon- (Pennant), Salmo albus (Artedi),
S. phinoc (Turton), S. brachypoma (Gunther); but by the majority of recent
authors is placed as a synonym to S. trutta. Pennant described his white salmon
from the Esk in Cumberland, where he observed that it was found from July
until September, that it never exceeded a foot in length, and that " this is the
fish called by the Scots Fhinoc." Fleming also termed it the " Whitling, Hiding,
common in the sea and rivers of Scotland and the north of England," and that it
spawned in August and September. Jardine figured it, pi. iii, as Salmo albus,
Fleming, the young of a migratory trout, but not identical with the bull-trout of
the Tweed. It is locally known as herling or hirling, whiting, phinock, moudie-
trouf, silvenvhite, and blaelrtail, in different Scotch districts. It was about this

86 PHYSOSTOMI.

time that 8. albus began to be suppressed under the belief that it was the young
or a variety of the salmon- or sea-trout. Jenyns observed that neither he nor
Yarrell could see any appreciable difference between them. It is abundantly
evident, however, that Yarrell in his Salmo trutta includes the sewin of the south,
Wales, and Ireland, as well as the phinoek or hirling of Scotland, which he
observes is the S. albus, but that he could not distinguish it from his S. trutta.
Agassiz looked upon these forms as one, so did also Parnell, White, and Thompson.
Dr. Giinther reverted to the views of Pennant, remarking how the species in his
opinion differed from S. trutta, five out of seven of his types being from Yarrell's
and Parnell's collections. But he placed all the synonyms of 8. albus under the
head of S. trutta, even when the authors had referred to both as species. It thus
came to pass that this northern species, or 8. albus, has since 1866 been known as
S. brachypoma, Giinther, which is the more remarkable, as prior to the publication
of the volume of the Catalogue in which it was first thus named, the author was
able to record in the Addenda, p. 357, that he had received examples from the
Beauly, " and that they are named there ' Phinok.' "

Although a chain of examples, passing from this form into the river trout,
has not been recognized, I shall, when describing the short-headed fresh water
Loch Leven trout, give my reasons for supposing that it is most probably a
descendant of this short-headed marine variety, and also show how it does not
appear improbable that it, under certain conditions, may pass into and be lost in
the Salmo far io. These numerous deviations from the type tend to demonstrate
the adaptability of the species to varying conditions of life, and as w r e do not
perceive such in the salmon, one w^ould expect to find the trout in one or other
of its forms extending further, or accommodating itself to greater ranges of the
globe, and this is exactly what we observe in nature.

Variety b. Salmo cambricus, Plate CXII, fig. 1.

Salmulus, Willughby (young). The grey salmon, part, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(Ed. 1776) iii, p. 295, and (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 394. 8almo, no. 2, Artedi, Genera,
p. 12, Synon, p. 23, Spe. 50 ; Linn. Fauna Suec. p. 116, no. 307.

Salmo cambricus, Donovan, Brit. Fishes, iv, pi. xci ; Richards. Faun. Bor.
Amer. Fish. p. 141, pi. xci, fig. 2 ; Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 34 ; Houghton, Brit.
F. W. Fishes, p. 99, c. fig.

Sewen and Blue poll, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, pp. 208, 219, pis. ccxiii, ccxvi.

Salmo erio.v, Gmel. Linn. p. 1366; Bon. Ency. Ich. p. 159; Turton, Brit.
Fauna, p. 103 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 18(J ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 422 ; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (ed. 1) ii, p. 31, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii, p. 71 (ed. 3) i, p. 231 ; Kroyer, Dan.
Fiske, ii, p. 602 ; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 57, and Nat. Hist. Ireland,
iv, p. 148 ; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, p. 395 ; White, Catal. p. 76 (part).

The sewin of the south coast, Wales, and Ireland, similarly to the salmon-trout
of the east coast of Scotland, has both a long- and a short-headed variety.*
Two examples of sewin from Rosshire, presented by Mr. Godman, are in the
British Museum. So similar, however, is this fish externally to the salmon-trout,
and passes into it so exactly, that of one of Yarrell's examples in the national
collection being a skin destitute of any record of its ccecal appendages,
Dr. Giinther has remarked that " it is one of those specimens in which the
distinctive characters of the species are very little developed : and it is quite
possible that the specimen came from Scotland, and belongs to Salmo trutta."
Having thus shown how difficult, if not impossible, it may be to discriminate
between these two forms, I will pass on to how physical causes may occasion
changes, so that it has become very uncertain which of the two that is
under examination, and for this purpose I must again revert to the Tas-
manian experiment. Anadromous salmon ova were collected in this country,
and transmitted to the Antipodes, where they arrived in May, 1866. Some

* In Plate CXX of Salmo fontinalis die great difference occasioned through physical causes in
the comparative length of the head in a sal monoid fish is shown.

SALMONID^E. 87

of the fry were retained in a fresh water pond, bred there, and one of these
examples, which exceeded 18 inches in length, was received at the British
Museum in April, 1874. Its external appearance was similar to the typical
Salmo trutta, but internally it possessed only 36 ccecal appendages, demonstrating
that either 8. trutta may possess less than 43, or that S. cambricus may externally
develop into 8. trutta, or lastly, that 8. albus may have a preoperculum with a
distinct lower limb.

It seems evident that the external form and number of ccecal appendages
are insufficient to discriminate it from the salmon-trout, and I now arrive at
the consideration whether it can or cannot be distinctly differentiated from tho
brook- trout, a subject already adverted to (page 83). A fine series from Wales,
in the national collection, shows an unbroken series in external form, in colour,
and in dentition between the two, and asserted to be hybrids.* Other specimens
from Copenhagen are likewise present. The number of ccecal appendages in
these forms were found to be from 41 to 46. They are said to be locally known
as Twb-y-dail or " fall of the leaf," indicative of their colour, but in Owen's
Welsh Dictionary I find this local term employed for the chub, Leuciscus cephalus.
And finally, it may be repeated that breeding the two forms together does not
produce sterile hybrids but fertile varieties.

In 1879 a correspondence commenced respecting the blue poll and blue cock
of the Fo wey in Cornwall, Salmo cambricus, they are also termed Gandlemass fish ,
and are sold in Billingsgate as " Cornish salmon." Some which used to be taken
at the beginning of the year were said to have been unmended kelts, while an
example sent from that river in December, 1879, to Mr. Frank Buckland, proved
to be a male with the milt fully developed and ready for extrusion. In a
memorial from fishermen and others at or near the Fowey to the conservators, it
is stated that these fish ascend the river from " September to Christmas in accord-
ance with their natural habits," and although bearing spawn it was suggested
that the fishermen ought to be allowed to capture them during the close seasonf
because spawning sea fish are not protected, and that it is only at this period
that the fishing could be successfully prosecuted. Leave was requested that this
petition should be granted, but was very properly refused. In the Towy, in
Wales, the same variety termed Salmon glasback, " little blue salmon," largely
ascend for the purpose of spawning in the last week in January and the first half
of February, and we are told that thirty years ago, prior to the re-institution of a
close season, all the males were crimped and sent to the Severn district as a clean
run fish, while the females were dispatched there as they were.

In the British Museum are other examples from the Lossie river and Moray
Firth on the Scotch coast, passing from the typical salmon-trout by a graduated
series into the river-trout : they are also recorded as hybrids.

Parnell, under Salmo eriox, comprised in the Wernerian Memoirs the following
varieties found in the Firth of Forth. Salmon spotted bull-trout, plate xxxiii, f. 4 :
few spotted bull-trout, plate xxxiii, f. 5 : thickly spotted bull-trout, plate xxxiii,
f. 6: large headed bull-trout, plate xxxiii, f. 7: curved spotted bull-trout, plate
xxxiii, f. 8 : salmon bull-trout, plate xxxiii* : crescent-tailed bull-trout, plate xxxiv,
f. 9: Norway bull-trout, plate xxxiv, f. 10. While under Salmo trutta he gave

* Although hybrids among the salmonidsc had been observed as existing from the time of
Willughby, edited by Ray (1686), Dr. Giiather remarks, ,; no instance had been clearly made out
until we were enabled, through the liberality of the Rev. Augustus Morgan, to convince ourselves of
the existence of a hybrid between the sewin (S. cambricus) and the river-trout (S. fario) " (Catal. vi,
p. 8). Further on he continues " we have never had an opportunity of observing a naturally sterile
individual " (p. 47).

f In the Coquet, H.M. Inspectors of Fisheries were led to believe that the bull-trout only or
mostly ascended during the close season, and that they were destroying the breed of the salmon.
Elsewhere we are told they get first to the spawning beds ousting the Salmo salar. So in 1868
leave was given by the Home Office to fish during the close months. In four years 61,689 bull-
trout were captured, and in each of the four years as follows: 26,350, 15,464, 10,687, and 9188.
Destroying this form is said to have been a failure, but the result of such a license is evident, for in
the first year nearly half the entire captures for the four years occurred, the takes annually decreasing
until the fourth year, the last that Buckland recorded.

8S PHYSOSTOML

8- altois, Fleming, and the individual specimen the base of Parnell's figure,
plate xxxii, fig. 3, is in the British Museum collection as one of the types
of S. brachjpoma, Gtinther. It is evident that only the local east coast of
Scotland races formed the basis of his paper.

Yarrell's S. eriox and S. trutta, as seen by his collection now in the British
Museum, included the sewin or S. cambricus, also the S. albus. Two were
8. trutta, about twenty S. cambricus besides many small ones, and one 8. albus
forming one of the types of S. bracliypoma, Gtinther.

Thompson observes that his S. trutta is identical with S. albus, the Scotch
Herling sent him by Captain Fayrer, and that he found a perfect agreement
between them, while his S. eriox he asserted to be 8. cambricus or the sewin.

Couch largely augmented the nominal species of salmonida? and gave the five
following : SaJmo trutta which he terms Peal, and observes that under several
names it is known in considerable abundance through the whole extent of the
British Island, 8. cambricus or sewin, Sea-trout from the Fowey in Cornwall,
evidently identical with the so-called hybrids of the sewin. 8. trutta no. 2,
termed salmon-trout, which he asserts to be more a fish of the north than
the generality of this genus, and seems to be identical with S. eriox, Yarrell,
or a compound of 8. albus and S. cambricus. This author appears to have
been misled by two circumstances ; first, he accepted without due investiga-
tion the numerous subdivisions into which he found this species being divided
by those who held every little difference to be diagnostic of a distinct form
or the result of hybridization, and any who questioned such were deemed
incompetent observers suffering from confused ideas.* As a result he seems on
finding: what he conceived to be some fresh but slight modification to have
supposed he had discovered another new species, thus adding to the contusion
already existing. In fact (at p. 204) he remarks upon the difficulty of assigning
to his specimens the names given by the writers on the continent, and supposed as
a reason " that there exists several kinds of the Sahnonidce which are not yet clearly
defined," and that not a few of the known varieties will be discovered to be
distinct species. Secondly, it would seem that his descriptions were, at least in
several instances, made from his drawings, which, if artistic, are scarcely accurate.

Widegren (OfV. Vet. Akad. Fork. 1863) gave an interesting paper in which
he asserted that the anadromous sea-trout and non-migratory fresh water forms
were all variations of one species, the differences being due to the localities they
inhabited. Sterile forms, or rather those suffering from temporary sterility,
having the caudal fin generally (but not invariably) more forked, and their
colours more silvery than is seen in such as are in a breeding condition. In these
conclusions Malmgren generally agreed, and they appear to coincide with the
results of the experiment I have alluded, to and the series of examples in our
national collection.

B. x-xii, D. 12-14 (J^)/0, P. 13-14, V. 9, A. 11-13 (|:f), C. 18-19, L 1.
115-130, L t. |f:||, Vert. 59-00, Coec. pyl. 33-61.

Body rather elongated, and the abdominal profile more curved than that of
the back. The proportions of one part of the body to the remainder, more
especially the length of the head, vary considerably in this species, and though
1 consider the fresh water brook-trout specifically the same, the following
measurements and remarks solely refer to the anadromous form, unless otherwise
stated. The young in most respects are similar to the young of the salmon, while
in the adult fish the head in the male is generally longer than in the female.
Length of head 4| to 5|, of caudal fin from 7j to 8, height of body from 4 to 5
in the total length. Eye diameter about 7 to 7\ in examples exceeding 15 inches
in length, about 2 to 2|'diameters from the end of the snout, and the same distance
apart : it is comparatively larger in the young. Interorbital space convex, and

* Fit/.inger when asserting Salmo Schiffermnelleri, Bloch, to be a hybrid (Sitz. Ak. Wien, lxxii,
1876, p. 255) seemed to lave been mainly guided in liis decision by ascertaining that the reproduc-
tive organs only exist in a rudimentary condition in the joung" si age, degenerating into adipose
tissue in the adult.

SALM0NIDJ3. 89

equal to about the length of the snout. During the breeding season a knob
frequently exists at the upper side of the anterior end of the lower jaw in the
males. The posterior extremity of the upper jaw reaches to beyond the hind
edge of the eye in full-grown examples, and it is stronger in some varieties than
in others. The form of the gill-covers in this fish has been held to almost denote
species with some authors, to be dependant on sex according to others, or to be of no
signification at all. In some, as the typical S. trutta (see plate cxi), the posterior
edge of the preopercle is somewhat sinuous, while it has a distinct lower limb:
in the sewin this latter is less distinctly marked (plate cxii), but in the white
salmon, or herling, there is hardly a trace of it ; but, however, every intermediate
form may be found, or they may even differ on the opposite sides of the head in
the same specimen. The posterior edge of the opercle and subopercle form a
semi-circle, in which the subopercle generally, but not invariably, forms the most
prominent point. Several raised and curved lines are mostly present upon the
outer edge of the subopercle and opercle. Teeth in the young similar to those
in the salmon fry : there is a double row along the body of the vomer and a
transverse row where it joins the palatines. At an early age these vomerine teeth
become lost more quickly in s fine examples than in others, but generally there is
only a single row in examples a foot or upwards in length : the example in plate cxi,
which was 14 inches long, had a double row of six teeth on the vomer, besides a
transverse row of four anteriorly. The teeth in the jaws and palatines in a single
row. Three to six strong, sharp recurved ones on either side of the tongue.
Fins in large examples the fins are comparatively shorter than in smaller ones,
and the pectoral rarely extends half-way to the base of the ventral, which latter
is situated beneath the middle of the dorsal. The dorsal fin is comparatively
small : while the caudal is subject to considei'able diversities of form, in large fish
'being mostly almost square at its posterior extremity, or it may be notched, or
should the ends of its lobes be drawn asunder, it appears to be lunated. Scales
14 or 15 rows in an oblique line from the hind edge of the adipose dorsal fin,
downwards and forwards to the lateral-line. The scales in this species, more
particularly in the young, are very deciduous. Ccecal appendages vary considerably
in number, and though I am satisfied that their enumeration recorded as existing
in the British Museum specimens is correctly recorded in the Catalogue, I find
reason to believe a much wider difference can be found in nature. Mr. Brotherton,
of Kelso, sent me in August a fine specimen from the Tweed, termed "bull-
trout " (similar externally to the figure in plate cxi, fig. 2), it was a female, with
small ova, only two teeth remained on the forepart of the vomer, its tail was
almost square at its extremity, and it only possessed 33 ccecal appendages.
Colours Back bluish gray, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath, having
a purplish gloss when in the highest condition, but which takes on a muddy hue
after having been some time in fresh water. Small black spots, mostly of an
X-shape, exist along the gill covers and upper two-thirds of the body, or merely
upon the upper half of the gill covers, where they may be surrounded by a light
margin, while on the body they frequently are not seen below the lateral-line.
Some are densely, others sparsely spotted, with every intermediate variety. The
dorsal fin similarly may be destitute of spots, thickly or thinly covered by them.
Pectoral of a bluish lilac, often darkest externally. Caudal gray, or even dark
coloured. During the spawning season the head of the male is of an olive brown,
and the body of a dingy orange, or reddish brown, while the female is of a
blackish gray. Thompson alludes to one example which had a series of deep
orange longitudinal stripes, probably a male in the breeding livery. Parr or
orange fins are marked almost similarly to the young of the salmon, but the dorsal
fin has generally a white upper edge anteriorly, with a black basal band, which
often passes along almost the entire extent of the upper fifth of the fin, and
similar to the colours seen in the brook-trout. In the grilse state the caudal is
usually blackish.

Varieties These are referred to under the head of Salmo albus (page 85), and
S. cambricus (page 87) : while the fresh water forms will be discussed under
S. levenenais (page 93), and 8. fario (page 95).

90 PHYSOSTOMI.

Names. The term salmon-trout was originally employed under the supposition
that these fish were hybrids between the salmon and the trout. Mori or Sprod,
Cumberland and Lancashire. White trout, salmon-trout, bull-trout if large and
coarse : the scurf, Johnston. In the. grilse stage in Scotland, phinoJc, herling,
whitling, black-tail, silver-white, smelt, sprod, herring-sprod : and lammasmen,
Edinburgh market. During tbe first year or two parr, orange fins or yellow fins:
sil-bodiam, Welsh, which descend to the sea as smolts. Pennant gives the Welsh
names as gioyn-idd " white pate," and gleis-idd " blue pate."

Habits. This species has generally the habits of the salmon but not to so game
an extent, nor is it so powerful, still it is active and appears to move more of an
evening and during the night than during the day, and frequently selects more
sluggish waters than suit the salmon, even where the bottom is sandy or muddy.
It is often found at the tail of a pool or where the waters are quiet, but is of a
roving disposition. It is a wary and sharp-sighted form, always suspicious, and
the angler requires a long line when attempting to take it. It dashes at flies
but appears in some streams to lie rather deep in the water and hardly to be a
surface form. It is very destructive to small fish and by no means averse to
consuming the eggs or the young of the salmon. In an example 14 inches long
from the Dee, taken in July, 1882, I removed four sand launces, Ammodytes, from
its maw. Sir W. Jardine found the common food to be the sand hopper, Talitrus
locust a.

In the mackerel drift nets employed from March until May in the British
Channel, single examples of this fish are frequently taken. Also at the mouths of
rivers in Cornwall during summer and autumn in hang or moored nets. While
even in the rivers a few are captured throughout the year, showing that similar to
the salmon it is not invariably absent, but it more generally becomes abundant at
the end of summer or in the autumn. The migrations of the Salmo trutta and its
varieties, correspond to a great extent with those of the salmon, but it appears to
possess somewhat less power, and consequently is not so capable of ascent and
overcoming obstructions. Some very interesting figures are adduced by Bussell
showing the proportionate number of these fishes captured in the Tweed during
the eight and a half open months of the year. One-tenth were taken in the first
three and a half months, or from the middle of February to the end of May ; and
nine-tenths during the remaining five and a half months extending from June 1st
to the middle of October. In fact, in June they suddenly augmented by 300 per
cent, and in July stood at the highest figure : but a change now occurred, the fish
becoming of less average weight, pointing to a large proportion being young. In
some of the Irish rivers the salmon trout runs very early. Mr. Congreve considers
bull-trout to be sterile examples of this species which have ceased breeding and
discontinued their annual migrations, while their flesh may be either white or
pink.

Means of capture. These fish are very wary and it has been observed in the
Tweed and neighbouring fisheries that they will not freely enter the chambers of
the fixed nets, the proportion of them captured there being one for every nine
grilse or four salmon. But in the drifting hang nets at the mouths of the rivers
or in the estuaries three or four trout are taken for every salmon, and in about
equal numbers with the grilse. The same is observed elsewhere, and in the
estuaries of South Wales sewin of from 1 lb. to 4 lb. weight are frequently captured
during March and April.

Anglers find in rivers these fish will mostly take a worm if the waters are
muddy, as it begins to clear a spinning bait, when fine a fly. If hooked they
often display considerable cunning in their attempts to break the line with
a blow from the tail, or impetuously dart off" when a similar result ensues,
should it not run readily off the reel. In Scotland an hour or two's white trout
fishing when the fish are in the humour, is esteemed good sport as they often
take a fly well, up to 6 or 7 lb. weight ; while in Wales the sewin similarly
are sought after, especially of an evening, with fine tackle and a small fly. But
large examples, as bull-trout, appear to refuse bait or flies. The smaller ones
in salt water readily take a spinning bait and are often thus fished for on the

salmonim:. 91

west coast of Scotland, while whiffers for pollack on the south coast of England
not ^infrequently take a sewin. In Ireland a few salmon-trout are taken in the
mullet nets : in Belfast Bay they are captured in large quantities early in the
morning, if possible before day-break, by drawing sandy bays. In the Bristol
Channel, where the Severn, Wye, and Usk debouch, there exist certain fixed engines
termed putts and putchers, which, although capturing more salmon and grilse
than sewin, still are employed to take this fish. These fixed engines were
declared nuisances and illegal, unless proved to have been in existence prior
to Magna Charta : even then an annual close time was decreed, as well as a
weekly one. The fish Commissioners in 1879 were requested by the fishermen
to aid their endeavours to make it legal to omit the weekly close time, provided
the yearly close season were extended from September 1st to February 1st
(practically it did not pay to commence before March or April) to from
September 1st to March 18th, and now, due to the Commissioners' report,
week days and Sundays alike this fishing goes on without a weekly close time
(Field, August 2nd, 1879).

Breeding. The number of eggs deposited by the Salmo trutta is very similar
to what obtains in the salmon, and the remarks already made (p. 75) may be
referred to. In a very severe winter Couch found the sewin depositing its eggs as
late as January 22nd in the Fowey in Cornwall. The impurities and enemies
affecting those of one form are similarly inimical to those of the other (p. 65),
and as showing how anadromous species may deem it useless spawning in salt
water, I will quote Mr. Jackson, Land and Water (June lUth, 1876), who
observes that the " Salmon-trout cast their ova in the salt water in the Southport
Aquarium, without assuming the appearance of kelts, or even leaving off feeding
greedily on shrimps. They did not attempt to make a bed, and the spawn was
immediately eaten by their fellows." While the eggs of this species, similarly
to those of the salmon, have been safely conveyed to and hatched at the
antipodes.

Life history. The young Salmo trutta, as already observed, is very similar
to the young of the salmon, having its parr stage, and though it has been
asserted that anadromous forms are distinguishable by the number of transverse
bands or finger marks along their sides, it will be found that such a means
of diagnosis fails in practice among live fish. The parr of the salmon-trout goes
through the smolt and grilse stage, similarly to the young of the salmon, while its
parr are equally voracious (p. 70).*

As food. Those possessing yellowish, pink, or red flesh are almost equally
good as the salmon : the "bull-trout," however, of the Coquet is inferior, having
light coloured or white flesh, as has that fish sometimes taken from the Beauly,
but in some places those in which it is white are of a superior description.
It is remarkable that those from the Coquet are almost worthless, whereas the
Tweed form is very valuable, this being probably due to difference in water or
food. As a general rule large examples are found to be coarse.

Diseases. Those affecting salmon (p. 81) are similarly found attacking the
sea trout. Even so long ago as Pontoppidan (Natural History of Norway, 1755,
p. 139) we find allusions to disease affecting these fish. He asserts the salmon-
trout, Trutta taurina, to be a very common fish in the fresh lakes and rivers, but
many of them are subject to a sort of disease so that they cannot be eaten. The
head grows very large and the body emaciated, while in their entrails are found
pimples resembling millet seed. Some ascribed it as due to the sawdust from
the mills falling into the river, while others considered it to be retained roe which
had become diseased. This complaint was asserted not to affect the non-migratory
fresh water trout.

Habitat. In this, only the marine variety is alluded to, and it is found in
northern Europe ascending rivers falling into the Baltic, North Sea, the seas
surrounding the British Isles, and the Seine and the Loire in France.

* The various kinds of food suitable for young salmon are equally good for the salinon-
trout.

92 PHYSOSTOMI.

In the Orkneys, Low observed that it exists in great quantities in the Loch
of Stenness, through the whole summer. They do not grow so large as the
true trout, Salmo fario, neither are they so much esteemed, their flesh being white
and only moderately good. During harvest they ascend to the smallest streams to
spawn subsequent to which they return to the sea. It is common along the east
coast of Scotland, and Russell calculated that in the Tweed it is as numerous as
the salmon and grilse combined : to the south of the Tweed fifty to every salmon
and grilse, while in the Forth and Tay and other large and inaccessible rivers
in the north the bull-trout is almost a stranger. It is also found along the
north-east coast of England, more especially the Coquet, Tyne, Tees, and Wear.
It is less frequent on the west coast of Scotland than on the east. In Yorksliiie
very abundant along the coast and present in all the rivers frequented by the
salmon (Yorkshire Vertebrata). In Norfolk it is frequently taken in the Ouse
and the estuary (Lowe). Excepting the " Fordwich trout" from Kent, which
is of the typical Salmq trutta form, S- cambricus is generally found from the
south of England and Wales, extending up the west coast of Scotland.

In Ireland it is common around the coast.

As to the size it attains there exists the head of one in the British Museum
10 inches long from the Tweed, which measurement would seem to show the fish
must have been nearly 4 feet in length.

The figure, plate cxi, fig. 2, is from a male in the British Museum, 18 inches
long, from the Tweed, which contained 57 coecal appendages, and is similar to a
female I have from the same locality with only 33. In the variety S. albus figured,
there were 53 coecal appendages, the specimen was a female; the example of
S. cambricus was taken off Penzance in a trammel, August 13th, 1881, it was
a female 14 inches long, with the ova half developed, it had 40 ccecal appendages :
a young male 13 inches long from Wales possessed 41.

2 A. Salmo Levenensis, Plate CXVI, fig. 2 and 2a.

(?) Salmo Cumberland, Lacepede, v, p. 696.

Salmo Levenensis, Walker, Wern. Mem. i, p. 541 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (ed. 2)
ii, p. 217 (ed. 3) i, p. 257 ; Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 101 ; Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles,
iv, p. 243, pi. ccxx ; Houghton, Brit. Freshwater Fishes, p. 123, c. fig.

Salmo co3cifer, Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 146, pi. xxx, and Wern. Mem.
vii, p. 306, pi. xxx.

Loch Leven trout, Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. Pise. p. 143.

B. x-xii, D. 12-14 ( 2 T %), P. 12-14, V. 9, A. 10-12 (f;f), C. 19, L 1. 120-130,
L- tr. -!lff, Coec. pyl. 47-90, Vert. 57-59.

Body rather elongated, with the abdominal profile a little more curved than that
of the back. Length of head about 4f to b\, rather longest in the males, of
caudal fin 8, height of body 4^ to 5 in the total length. Eye diameter in an
example about lb. weight, 5^ to 6 in the length of the head, \\ diameter from the
end of the snout, and the same distance apart : it is of greater comparative size
in smaller specimens, but smaller in larger ones. Interorbital space convex.
Maxilla rather feeble, it reaches to slightly behind the hind edge of the eye :
lower jaw with a hook or knob at the upper end of the mandible. Lower limb
of preopercle generally, but not invariably, indistinct. Teeth of moderate
strength, a double row along the body of the vomer, which are sometimes more
or less lost, and a transverse row of 3 or 4 opposite its junction with the palatines.
In some few cases a single row of teeth has been observed along the body of the
vomer, but in no instance have I found this to be the case in the Howietown fish,
all of which have a double row similar to the brook-trout. Fins these vary in
the Loch Leven as well as in other forms of trout, and are due to the same causes.
The pectoral is more pointed than is generally seen in the brook-trout, but like that
of the white sea-ti-out, and reaches to about half-way to the base of the ventral,

SALMONIDzE. 93

which latter fin is inserted under the middle or hind third of the first dorsal, and
extends above half-way to the origin of the anal. Caudal eniarginate, becoming
square in large examples. Scales there are 13 to 15 rows in an oblique line
running from behind the base of the adipose dorsal fin downwards and forwards to
the lateral-line, coecal appendages varying in this species : Richardson found 73,
Parnell 80, Giinther 49 to 90, due either to several becoming confluent into one
stem, or one subdividing into several, but anyhow demonstrating inconstancy in
numbers. In a female example with the ova developing, the length of the fish
being 8 inches, received from Howietown in June, 1882, there were 47 coecal
appendages, and mostly shorter than in the brook-trout : the length of the head
was 4| in that of the total length. Colours generally grayish or greenish alone
the back, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Numerous, moderate numbers,
or few round black spots, encircled by a light ring on the gill covers and upper
surface of the head, while the upper half, or two-thirds of the body, has numerous
X-shaped or even rounded black spots scattered over its surface. Dorsal fin gray,
with numerous black white-edged spots, but without any white tip to the fin :
frequently black marks upon the adipose dorsal. Usually the upper half of the
caudal fin is spotted. At Howietown, where such excellent opportunities exist
for trying the effects of various forms of food and watching the results, it has
been observed (page 61) that on arriving at the fourth year a general yellow
tinge shows itself. On first seeing a pond of these fish which have been fed upon
clams, and as they come to the surface in large numbers, when a little food
is thrown in, they give the observer the idea that he is looking at the common
brook-trout, and it is not until some have been removed from the water and their
comparatively short heads seen, that the illusion is dispelled. In the tanks in
which horse-flesh and vegetables are given as food an apparently very different
sort comes to the surface, having a bright silvery hue with black spots, and it
seems difficult to realize the fact that this is almost entirely due to change of diet.
I have also alluded to (page 61) how these fish when in the parr stage retain
their red spots up to the period of eighteen months, or even three years, but that
such may likewise be perceived in these trout when intermediate between kelts
and fresh run or well-mended fish. Although in some few examples they may
be present all the year round.

Lacepede's species from the lakes of Cumberland and Scotland, having a small
head, with white flesh, and externally of a gray colour, is very probably this
species. Dr. Knox (Journ. Linn. Soc. Dec. 19th, 1854), observes, at first he
had thought this a specific form, " although anatomical investigations had not
hitherto confirmed it." He remarked that it was in the highest condition from
December until March.

This form of trout agrees with the variety of the sea-trout termed Salmo albus,
in its same short head, preopercle with a very indistinct lower limb, and pointed
pectoral fins, but it differs in the inconstant character of the number of ccecal
appendages. The most positive difference is in the character of its vomerine
teeth, possessing as it does a double row along the body of that bone. In early
life all fishes of this genus are well provided with vomerine teeth, which are
more deciduous in anadromous than in fresh water forms. This would appear
to point out that a fresh water existence is more conducive to their retention
than living in the sea is, consequently it might be anticipated that were marine
forms to take in a permanent fresh water condition of life these teeth would
be less deciduous. This in fact is the distinction between the Loch Leven trout
and the white sea-trout, and in the sewin we perceive a graduated series
(page 59) from the sea to the fresh water form, whereas in this instance all
communication between the two has ceased to exist. Unless the example from
Howietown which I dissected is an exception, it would seem that change of
locality to a smaller piece of water has been coincident with a decrease in
the number of the pyloric appendages, coupled with a decided lengthening of
the head.

Habits. These are similar to what have been remarked in the brook-trout.
During the breeding season it has been observed that some adults possess abraded

94 PHYSOSTOML

noses, due apparently to rubbing or routing up the ground for eggs, but as
such is not seen among unripe tish it is suggested that it may be occasioned
by their searching for suitable places in which to form redds.

At Sir J. Gibson-Maitland's Howietown fishery, one fact was very patent, that
the form of trout least alarmed at the presence of strangers was the Loch Leven,
coming immediately to the surface for food, making the water bubble with their
numerous forms, while they allowed themselves to be removed by means of a hand-
net ; the American charr kept more to the mid- water ; but the common brook-
trout were so cunning that the very sight of a net caused them to dive down
and remain at the bottom. It may be that this difference in character is due
to inherited instinct and that by the time the Loch Leven trout have been
exposed to capture for several generations they will be as crafty as the Salmo
fario has now become. Some of the young raised at Howietown are observed
to take on cannibal propensities, if small their colour becomes yellow, their teeth
abnormally developed, while they rapidly augment in size. At Loch Leven
during the breeding season these fishes are observed to push up rivers to deposit
their spawn, and in these localities the young are hatched and the parr i-eared.
In fact its habits appear to be migratory to a qualified extent, the parr not leaving
the burns for the loch until they are from ten to eighteen months of age.

Knox found that they were tilled with entomostraca in the month of January,
but that during the remainder of the year they lived on Buccinum : at Howietown
they thrive on clams, horseflesh, or even vegetable diet.

If we turn to Sir Robert Sibbald's History of Kinross-shire, compiled about
a hundred and seventy years ago, w T e read "Loch Leven abounds with fine
fish, such as salmon taken in summer;" while showing to how recent a date
anadromous forms have been recorded there, we find in Graham, " General view
of the agriculture of Kinross and Clackmannan," published towards the commence-
ment of the present century, that among other fishes " flounders are also found in
Loch Leven." These instances agree with the general traditions of that part
of the country, that marine fish formerly had free ingress into and egress from
Loch Leven, but when this ceased is questionable. Prior to 1830 the loch
covered a superficial space of 4312 acres, but in the month of December that
year it was induced to 3543 acres by the completion of a drainage scheme,
promoted partly by landowners in the vicinity to reclaim land and partly by mill
owners on the river Leven to give a regular supply of water to their mills. Through
the new cut the water has since been carried, reducing the level of the loch nine
feet below what it previously stood at. Sea fish cannot possibly obtain ingress,
a matter of not so much consequence, as the bleach and other works on the river
render the water too poisonous for any fish to pass up them alive.

These drainage works do not appear to have proved beneficial to the tr*out in
the loch, where from 1846 to 1855 the captures principally taken by net averaged
annually 13,200, subsequent to which I have not obtained the figures until 1872,
when 18,000 were taken by anglers and 2000 by net : and in 1873, when 13,394
were taken by the rod. Latterly this loch has been much frequented by anglers,
and as the fish (probably due to the excessive lowness of the burns), appear now to
be less favourable for breeding, artificial stocking has been resorted to.

Sir J. Gibson-Maitland (Field, Sept. 23rd, 1882) shows the results of stocking
this loch from his establishment at Howietown :
1875, fry turned in 9000 : captures 5093

3227
6286
13,519
21,491
19,642
16,811
9-018

It is pointed out that it takes two seasons for the fry to attain to a size worth
taking, a conclusion which agrees with the figures, also that with the increased
captures at first there is a diminution in the weight of the individual fish.

1876

5)

11

50,000 :

1877

)

11

70,000 :

1878

11

11

? :

1879

11

11

none :

1880

11

none :

1881

)>

11

none :

1882

11

11

50,000 :

average weight each 1413 lb.
1-086 lb.
901 lb.
-685 lb.
-7771b.
960 lb.
1-050 lb.
?

SALMONID^E. 95

Breeding. Similar to the brook-trout, at Loch Leven they ascend the streams for
tin's purpose towards the end of September or commencement of October. Sir
J. Gibson-Maitland crossed the ova of the Loch Leven trout with the milt of the
sea-trout in the winter of 1881, and 95 per cent, were hatched. It appears to me
that the progeny will not be hybrids, but merely two varieties of one form breeding
together with the result of non-migratory Loch Leven trout having perhaps more
migratory instincts.

Before passing on to the next species, I cannot resist remarking upon the
magnificent fish-breeding establishment at Howietown, raised by the energetic
skill and capital of Sir J. Gibson-Maitland. Here, although charr and brook-
trout are reared, it is the Loch Leven trout that is more especially cared for. The
hatching-houses are capable of hatching and raising 12,000,000 eggs and young
fry up to the period when they can feed themselves, when they are transferred
to the rearing-ponds, which are in a regular series, so that each year's produce is
kept by itself. To show what good management and judicious skill may effect, I
Avould instance the pond for the six-year old fish, 80 yards by 40 yards, with a
stream passing through it : here, when I visited this interesting establishment,
were 1200 Loch Leven trout from 4 to 7 lb. weight each, and all in excellent con-
dition, conclusively demonstrating how watery wastes can be turned into excellent
food-producing reservoirs. If the experiment proves a financial success, as appears
highly probable, its owner hopes to see similar institutions elsewhere, which
would be the means of extending to an almost unlimited extent the fish-producing
properties of the country now so lamentably wasted, from the apathy of the
owners, the greed of the fishermen and the want of energy and knowledge in our
legislators.

Diseases. These fishes are affected with disease similarly to the salmon and the
trout, while bay-salt has been used with success at Howietown in order to arrest
a fungus which has from time to time appeared in the ponds. I was informed
that crows after having eaten diseased fish moulted and became most miserable
objects and three or four were thought to have become leprous.

As food. The Loch Leven trout is generally very highly esteemed, not only for
the red colour of its flesh, but because it possesses a peculiar delicacy of flavour.

Habitat. This non-migratory fresh water trout is found in Loch Leven in
Fifeshire, and other lochs in the south of Scotland and the north of England ;
while due to the success of the artificial fish-breeding at Howietown the variety
is being extended all over the kingdom to as far south as Hampshire. Whether
in a few years all trace of them will have been lost, and they will assume the
colour and proportions of the brook-trout, only time can demonstrate. In the
English edition of Limueus incorporated into the Encyclopedia Londinensis, p. 53,
it is observed, " that it is not above fifty years ago that Mr. Copland conveyed
perch into the Ken-loch and the River Urr, where tbey have thriven remarkably
well : as has been the case with the trout taken from the River Leven and
deposited into Loch Long in the county of Renfrew." While Parnell recorded
having met with this form so far north as Sutherlandshire.

As to the size this fish attains, six-year-old examples, some weighing as much
as 7 lb., were found at the Howietown ponds in 1882. In Loch Leven on April 27th,
one 10 lb. weight was netted ; while in the New Statistical Account of Scotland
mention is made of two examples captured previous to that date, one being
nearly 9 lb., the other almost 18 lb.

The example figured is 12 inches in length, and one of a pair sent me from
Loch Leven by the late Mr. Alston.

2 B. Salmo fario, Plates CIX, fig. 3, and CXIII, CXIV, and CXVI, fig. 1.

Trutta fiuviatilis, Will. p. 199 ; Ray, p. 65 ; Sibbald, Scot. Illus. no. 25. Trout,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 297, pi. lix, and (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 399,
pi. lxx.

Salmo fario, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 509 ; Bloch, Ich. t. xxii, xxiii ; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1367 ; Bl. Schn. p. 400; Tnrton, Brit. Fauna, p. 103; Bonn. Ency. Ich.

96 PHYSOSTOMI.

p. 160, pi. Ivi, f. 266; Donovan, Brit. Fishes, iv, pi. \xxxv ; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 322 and Eur. Merid. iii, p. 460 ; Flem. Brit. An. p. 181 ; Jardine, Edin. New
Phil. Journal, xviii, p. 51 and Salmonidse, t. v-xii ; Richards. Fann. Bor. Amer.
p. 144, pi. xcii, fig. 3; Jenyns, Manual, p. 424; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 304,
t. xxx, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 144, t. xxx ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 625,
c. fig. ; Nilss. Skand. Faun. p. 415 ; White, Catal. p. 77 ; Gunther, Catal. vi,
p. 59 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 152 ; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. p. 44 ; Steind.
Ak. Wiss. Wien. liii, 1866, p. 203.

Salmo trutta, Lacepede, v, p. 189.

Salmo fario, var. Forestensis, Bl. Schn. p. 400.

Salar ausonii, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 319.

Fario lemanus, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 300, pi. 617.

Trutta fario, Siehold, Suss. w. f. p. 319 ; Canestrini, Fauna d'ltalia, Pesci,
p. 24 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 533.

Variety a. Salmo orcadensis, Plate CXIV, fig. 1.

The Salmon, Low, Fauna Oread, p. 220.

Salmo orcadensis, Gunther, Catal. vi, p. 91 ; Houghton, Brit. Freshwater
Fishes, p. 121, c. fig.

" Mr. Low says, in the Loch of Stenness, Orkneys, is found the gray trout :
also a trout of 36 lb. weight or more, along with the common trout, occurs both
there and in Zetland." This large form Richardson considered to be Salmo ferox,
and Gunther a new species which he termed S. orcadensis. This loch is the largest
in the Orkneys, about 9 miles long and 1| broad, fresh in the upper portion,
brackish or even salt in the lower. Dr. Gunther defines this fish as " a non-
migratory trout," very similar to S. nigripinnis, but distinguished from it by a
broader and stronger maxillary, larger scales on the tail and a greater number
(50) of pyloric appendages, instead of from 36 to 42, while S. ferox has at least 49.
The teeth along the body of the vomer form a single or double row which are
more or less persistent. Richardson was evidently correct in associating it with
S. ferox possessing saline proclivities.

Variety b. Salmo ferox, Plate CXVI, fig. 1, monstrosity.

Salmo lacustris, Berkenhout's Sjm. Ed. 1795, i, p. 79, sp. 3.

Salmo ferox, Jardine, Ency. Brit. (ed. 7) Art. Angling, p. 142, and Edin. New
Phil. Journal, xviii, p. 55, and Salm. pi. iv ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 425 ; Yarrell,
(ed. 1) ii, p. 60, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii, p. 110 (ed. 3) i, p. 288 ; Richards. Fauna Bor.-
Amer. Fish, p. 144; ISilss. Skan. Faun. p. 412; White, Catal. p. 78; Gunther,
Catal. vi, p. 92.

Salar ferox, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p 338.

Lalce trout or Buddagh, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 222.

This seems to be a trout which has taken on cannibal propensities (see
page 94) and its food appears to bo almost exclusively fish. It attains a large
size, while Richardson alluded to a variety occurring in Loch Lojal, in Sutherland,
of a purplish brown above, blackish gray beneath, and the entire body covered
with dark sepia-coloured spots, smallest below the lateral-line. It is known as
.lliiildagh or " big fat fellow " in Lough Neagh and some parts of Ireland (Harris,
Hist. Co. Down, 1744, p. 236), and is said to be a deep water form confined to
lakes, seldom wandering to rivers or to the sea, mostly taken by trolling, though
sometimes with a fly. It has been known to return a second or third time to the
bait even after it has been dragged 40 or 50 yards. It ascends a short distance
up rivers to spawn : Thompson found one from 10 to 12 lb. weight contained
4620 ova. Its flesh is of a dull orange colour and generally coarse. It has been
found in the lochs of the north of Scotland and as far south as Ulswater and
Derwentwater : also Llanberris in Wales, and in many Irish lakes as Lough
Neagh, L. Melvin, L. Eske, L. Erne, and most of the larger ones.

Among our earlier British ichthyologists we find that Berkenhout termed the

SALM0NIDJ3. 97

" great lake-trout " 8. lacustris (under which name it appears in Sampson's
Londonderry and Dubourdieu's Co. Down), supposing it to be identical with
the continental variety ; but of late years differences have been asserted to exist
between the British and foreign race. Jardine and Selby termed ours S. ferox,
the specific name having been chosen to characterize its size and ferocious habits.
Jurine believed in the specific identity of all the forms of trout in the Lake of
Geneva; and it would be but reasonable to expect that if the British 8. fario
under favourable conditions could attain the size of 8. ferox, the continental
8. fario, which is the same species, would, under like conditions, also arrive at
being a great lake-trout. Moreau (vol. iii, p. 534) places among the synonyms
of Trutta (or Salmo) fario, " La Forelle du Lac Leman, Fario Lemanus ;" and at
p. 536 observes, " La Truite feroce, Trutta ferox, Valenc, des eaux du Foretz est
une simple variete de la Truite vulgaire, et nullement une espece particulierc."

Although these authors have, in my opinion, been perfectly correct, still there
existed the statement of Dr. Giinther that structural differences existed among
the specimens in the British Museum, showing that S. ferox possessed 56 to
57 vertebra? and 43 to 49 caeca, while 8. fario had 57 to 60 vertebrae and 33 to 47
caeca. I have, however, now shown (page 56) that examples of S. fario may have
from 56 to 60 vertebrae, and likewise from 33 to 54 caeca ; thas overlapping the entire
amount of variations ascribed to British forms. Sir William Jardine stated
that " the dorsal fin in 8. ferox contains 15 rays, and appears to be constant in
that number;" and that " in form it is generally shorter proportionally and deeper
than in large specimens of 8. fario." Sir J. Richardson distinguished between the
great lake-trout and brook-trout by the size attained. The tail " in adults is
perfectly square, or might even be described as slightly rounded at its extremity ;
in the young it is slightly forked, and appears to fill up gradually as the fish
advances in age." The relative position of the fins and the number of rays in
the dorsal, were said to vary from 2-4/11 or a total of from 13 to 15. Thompson
observes that he found from 33 to 49 caeca in various examples of 8. ferox from
12 to 17 inches in length.

I possess undoubted examples of the common brook-trout having from 13 to
15 dorsal rays : Moreau likewise in French specimens of the brook-trout found 3
or 4 undivided and 9 to 11 divided rays in the dorsal fin : likewise 3 undivided
and 7 to 9 divided anal rays : while as to the caudal fin being square in adults, so
it also is in large examples of the brook-trout. Yarrell (ed. 3, i, p. 281) gives an
illustration of a large Thames trout (a locality not frequented by 8. ferox according
to authors), in which the caudal fin is as rounded as in any examples of great lake-
trout of similar size. It was a male, 28 inches long, having a hooked lower jaw,
while it weighed 11 lb. The comparative length of the head and height of the
body are almost identical with what obtains in an example of 8. ferox, 20 inches
long, from Llanberris, and which is in the British Museum. I examined a few
years since a specimen (which is still preserved) of trout, weighing upwards of
131b., taken from a large sheet of water at Alresford in Hampshire, which is well
stocked with coarse fish. This was one of about a dozen that some years
previously had been transferred from the contiguous stream, to which they could
not subsequently obtain access. Without a history of from whence the fish came,
I maintain that no ichthyologist could be certain whether any given specimen is
or is not a " great lake-trout."

" The trout," says Dr. J. Davy, " when it feeds principally upon fish must be
extremely active and strong ; and consequently, from its predatory mobile habits,
acquires large teeth, large fleshy fins, thick skin, and great pectoral fins for
turning."

Variety c Salmo Con. uMensis, Plate CXIII, fig. 2.

Trout, Borlase, Cornwall, p. 263, pi. xxvi, f. 1.

Salmo Cornubiensis, Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 65 ; Bl. Schn. p. 421.

This is a form mostly residing in small streams, and in which the parr finger
marks are continued through life, unless under changed conditions it increases
beyond its usual size, when these markings disappear.

7

98 PHYSOSTOMI.

Variety d. Salmo nigripinnis, Plate CXV, fig. 2.

Salmo nigripinnis, Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 96 ; Houghton, British Freshwater
Fishes, p. 120, c. fig.

I now propose alluding to Salmo nigripinnis, Giinther, which is similar to
S. Cornubiensis as described by Borlase, Artedi, etc., and which for many reasons
may be considered as a variety which in suitable localities frequently
developes into S. ferox. I have been most liberally supplied with specimens
from Cardiganshire, through the kindness of Sir Pryse Pryse ; and among them
is one form which was alluded to by Barrington, in the Transactions of the
Royal Society for 1774, as the " Hog- backed Trout of Plinlimmon " (Plate
CXI, fig. 1), which Dr. Giinther, as I believe correctly, considered identical with
his S. nigripinnis. My example, which is about 11 inches in length, is peculiarly
interesting, as forming a link between S. nigripinnis and 8. ferox, pertaining
partly to one form and partly to the other. The following are the differences
noted in the British Museum Catalogue :

Salmo nigripinnis. Salmo ferox.

D. 14, A. 12, P. 13, Csec. 36-42; D. 14, A. 10-11,* P. 16, Crec. 44-49;

Vert. 57-59. Vert. 58-59.

Head small. Snout not much pro- Head of moderate size. Snout

duced in males. No mandibular hook much produced in males. Mandibular

observed. Head of vomer with a trans- hook when spawning. Head of vomer

verse band of teeth, on body generally small, toothless ; body with a double or

in a single series. Female mature at zigzag line of teeth. Caudal truncated

7 inches. Largest example observed, at 18 inches; in larger examples

16 inches. rounded. Female mature at 14 inches.

Largest example observed, 31 inches.

These reputed two species have been found residing in nearly or quite the
same localities in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The size of the speci-
mens examined is important, as tending to modify the conformation of the
opercular pieces, as well as of the fins, the character of the scaling, the propor-
tionate diameter of the eye, and the existence or the reverse of the teeth on the
front of the body of the vomer. The teeth being present on the anterior part
of the body of the vomer in the smaller S. nigripinnis, but absent from the
same place in the larger ones, S. ferox, is symptomatic of endentulation due to
age. The same argument applies to the mandibular hook, it being well known
that among the Salmonidse this production is absent in young males, as may be
readily observed in the parr which possess milt ready for shedding. The number
of pectoral rays is immaterial, as I find, even in the British Museum specimens,
examples of S. nigripinnis, S. ferox, and S.fario possessing from 13 to 15.

The foregoing leaves the following as Dr. Giinther's primary reasons for
dividing these two so-called species : S. nigripinnis has D. 14, A. 12 ; head of
the vomer-toothed, and generally a single row along the body of that bone ; caudal
fin with pointed lobes. S. ferox : D. 13, A. 10-11 ;* no teeth on the head of the
vomer, but a double row along the body of the bone ; caudal fin truncated.

The example of the " hog-backed trout " in my collection has D. 14, teeth on
the front portion of the body of the vomer, and a distinct lower limb to the
preopercle, thus belonging to S. nigripinnis. Likewise A. 11, a double line of
teeth along the body of the vomer, and the caudal fin almost square at its extremity
or becoming similar to what is given as diagnostic of S. ferox.

I have likewise six smaller examples of S. nigripinnis in which teeth are
present on the front portion of the body of the vomer and in a zigzag line along
the body of that bone ; the caudal fin in the smallest has pointed lobes, which
have become rounded in larger specimens ; the ccecal appendages varied from
35 to 44. In some of these fish the posterior margin of the preopercle was

* Thompson (iv, p. 157) found D. 13-14, A. 11-12.

SALMONIBvE. 99

rounded, and had no distinct lower limb. The maxilla was much feebler than
seen in some other local races of brook-trout, which was remarkably the case on
comparing it with a beautiful Yorkshire variety sent me by Mr. G. Brooks, f.l.s. ;
but even among the Yorkshire specimens I found great differences to exist.
These Cardiganshire fish in the Tivy are found to 4 lb. or 5 lb. weight, but rarely
if ever take a fly when so large, bat are to be caught by means of a minnow.
Small ones removed to a pond attain in about 3 years to 31b. or 3^- lb. in size,
their flesh is pinkish, and their flavour said to be excellent. Out of 8 examples,
6 had no red spots, one had them along the lateral-line : and the last had them
both on the lateral-line and in one or two rows below it.*

If a trout, normally belonging to a small race, as S. Comubiensis, is transferred
to a lake or reservoir, as in the one near Penzance, where food is plentiful, it
attains a size to which it never reaches in its ancestral stream, showing capacity
for growth to be inherent, and called into action by luxuriant living. In Scotland
the largest examples are in lochs ; so also in Wales and Ireland, although
occasionally a large one may be found in a sluggish stream, especially if such
passes over a rich soil. Should food be plentiful, a brook-trout may attain to many
pounds in weight in suitable localities in fact to as large a size as the great
lake-trout, which I hold to be merely a form of S. fario which indulges in
luxurious living, or cannibal propensities.

Variety e. Salmo estuarius, Plate CIX, fig. 3.

Sahno estuarius, Knox, Zoologist, 1855, xiii, p. 4662.

Salmo gallivensis, Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 88; Houghton, Brit. Freshwater
Fishes, p. 105, c. fig.

The most characteristic peculiarity of this form is said to be found in the
small size of the coecal appendages : also that it is at once recognized from Salmo
trutta by the excessive shortness of the tabes on the lateral-line. Four examples
were recorded and four more passing into the brook-trout, termed hybrids. It is
similarly coloured to freshwater forms. Knox's example had sixty vertebras,
similar to the number present in the British Museum specimen, and the name he
gave well denotes the chief characteristic of this variety. The example figured
is 19 inches long, and came from Waterford. Mr. J. Har vie- Brown took in June,
1882, from a sea-pool or fish-pool at the mouth of the river, freshwater at low tide,
salt or brackish at high- water, brown-river trout, periodically visiting the brackish
localities, and taking on a silvery sheen of scales, much as he found them in
North Uist. They are said to lose condition about spawning time, then disappear
but not to ascend streams to breed. Couch alludes to Knox's estuary trout and
observes upon its being a fish which has gone to the sea, and that he had received
examples migrating seawards in May towards the deep.

Variety /. Salmo stomachicus.

The Gillaroo, Barrington, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 1774, lxiv, p. 116; Watson,
1. c. p. 121 ; Hunter, 1. c. p. 210 ; Sowerby, Brit. Misc. t. lxi ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish,
(ed. 3) i, p. 283 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 154 : Couch, Fish. Brit.
Isles, iv, p. 240, pi. ccix.

Salmo stomachicus, Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 95 : Hoaghton, Brit. F. W. Fishes,
p. 125, c. fig.

This has been considered distinct, due to the abnormal thickness of the middle
coat of its stomach, otherwise, observes Mr. Barrington, there are no exterior
marks by which the species can be distinguished from the common trout.
Pennant asserted that the increased thickness of the stomach proceeds from the
superior quantity of shell-fish which it finds in the waters it inhabits, and which
may call more frequently for the use of its comminuting powers than is requisite

* I intend depositing all these forms, along with my British collection of fish, in the South
Kensington Museum.

7 *

100 PHYSOSTOMI.

in those of our trout. Thompson (1. c.) observes that the coats of other
species of Salmones than S.farw (of which only the Gillaroo is set down as a
variety) become muscular from the same cause. He alluded to having found it in
8. ferox. Sir J. Richardson observes : " We may here note the existence of a
strongly-marked and peculiar variety, called the Gillaroo trout of Galway. It
is remarkable for feeding on shell-fish, in consequence of which (it is supposed)
the coats of the stomach acquire a great degree of thickness, from which peculiarity
it is sometimes called the gizzard trout." * Sir H. Davy remarks that " the charr
of the lakes of Southern Austria feeding similarly (to the Gillaroo trout) have a
like thick stomach." It generally prefers a rocky bottom, and is said to breed in
lakes in their shallower pails, and not to ascend rivers for this purpose. But it
is found in the Shannon, Lough Corrib, Lough Mask, Lough Derg, Lough
Melvin, &c. The colours of this variety may be due to the character of the food
it indulges in, while in some localities its flavour is considered excellent, in
others quite the reverse. In Lough Melvin it is somewhat hog-backed, fine in
colour, and well flavoured : in Lough Derg, soft, colourless, and inferior. Its
stomachs are occasionally served up in Ireland as gizzards. Thompson obtained
from the stomach of one example, about 8 inches long, above 1000 shells of
Limneus pereger, Valvata obtusata, and a few Cyclas cornea. Stoddart observes:
this variety is found in a small tarn or loch, situated on a shoulder of Ben
More, in Sutherlandshire, about three miles from Innisnadamph, named Mulach
Corry.

Variety g Swaledale trout. Plate CXV, fig. 1 .

B. xi, D. 12-13 (/_v 4 o) | 0, P. 13-14, V. 9, A. 10-11 ( s ), L. 1. 125, Ccec. pyl. 35.

This variety, which is comparatively rather broad, was given me by Mr. G.
Brooks, F.L.S., who informs me that it is found in Oxnop Beck, Swaledale,
Yorkshire. The example figured is a female 10 inches in length. There is a
considerable difference in the form and proportions of the sevei-al examples..
Colours it is the most beautifully-tinted form that I have seen, being finely
studded with black dots placed in a light circle, and likewise with numerous blue
marks and red spots. Its. dorsal fin is finely spotted, but the white anterior edge,
so constant in most freshwater forms, is indistinct or absent. Scales fifteen
rows between the posterior edge of the base of the adipose dorsal in a line passing
downwards and forwards to the lateral-line. Stomach thickened and similar to the
variety termed Gillaroo, which form, Dr. Giinther observes, possesses forty-four
cceca, consequently if a variation in the number of such are diagnostic of distinct
species, this is a variety of the Gillaroo. Respecting its exact habitat, Mr. Brooks
observes that the upper part of the beck runs over millstone grit, but as it leaves the
moor it gets upon mountain limestone, and from this point, for a mile and a half,
to the point where it joins the Swale, it is composed of numerous small falls, with
intervening little dark pools in which the trout lie. The beck is overhung all
the way (on the limestone) by trees, mostly alder, silver birch and hazel, but with
a good sprinkling of elm, mountain ash, &c. The beck is closely overhung and is
in a narrow ravine.

Variety h. Crassapuill trout.

B. xi-xiii, D. 12-13 ( 9 3 -i*o) | 0, P. 14, V. 10, A. 11 (), L. 1. 125, L. t. 27/32.

Six examples of this exceedingly interesting variety were sent me by Mr.
Harvie-Brown in June, 1882. They were taken in Sutherlandshire, at Loch
Crassapuil, where they are looked upon as land-locked sea-trout. Their fin rays
are similar to those of Sahno levenensis ; a transverse row of teeth is present across
the anterior portion of the vomer, and a double row along its body. The preopercle
has a distinct lower limb in some, indistinctin others, while the shape of the subopercle

* Hunter's experiments with hard and soft food on gulls, showed thickening of the muscular
wall of the stomach occurred due to increased use.

SALMONID^B. 101

varies. Fins the pectoral is as long as the head excluding the snout, it is not
quite so pointed as in the Loch Leven form, nor so rounded as in the common
brook-trout, but intermediate between the two. Scales 125 rows along the
lateral-line, 15 from the base of the adipose dorsal to the lateral-line, 25 froni the
lateral- line to the base of the ventral tin. Coecal appendages 46 in the one
examined. Length of head 4 | to 5 in the total length. Colours silvery, with
the upper two thirds of the body and head closely covered with x-shaped or round
black spots, and in two of the examples a few red spots but mostly confined
to the lateral-line. The loch has a pure white sandy bottom, which probably
accounts for their silvery colour. When fresh caught their backs are of a vivid
green, varying to pale sea-green and dark olive, in accordance with the depth of
the water in which they live. Dorsal fin covered with black spots.

These fish have the silvery appearance of auadromous forms, and externally
strongly resemble the Loch Leven variety, but the number of coecal appendages is
different, being almost identical with that observed in a Loch Leven example raised
at Howietown, and one step nearer x'emoved from its marine ancestry than is the
true S. levenensis. Did this species run up rivers, doubtless they would take on
the colours of the brook-trout, as they have its dentition. They attain to 3 lb. or
4 lb. weight.

Mr. J. Harvie-Brown (Land and Water) observes that at a far inland locality
in Sutherkindshire, brown trout, dark and spotted, were caught in 1877, and
introduced to a chain of lochs in the same county, which have their sources in
innumerable springs of clear water from granite and limestone mountains
(principally the former, as the limestone, for the most part, is at a lower level).
These fish became, in a single year, silvery and covered with minute bright scales
like sea-trout, and grew to the size of 1 lb. weight in twelve months, from at most
j of a lb. The food in the loch is shell-fish and tadpoles, and the bottom granite,
gravel, and sand.

Monstrosities. Hog-backed trout of Plinlimmon, Cambridge Quart. Mag. 1833,
p. 391 ; Cobbold, Edinb. New Phil. Journ. ii, 1855, pi. vi.

B. xii, D. 12-15 (jfr) | 0, P. 13-15, V. 9, A. 10-12 ( T %), C. 19, LI. lff:#f
Vert. 57-60.

Length of head 4j to 4f- (in old breeding males 3|), of caudal fin 7 to 7\
height of body 4|- to 5 in the total length. Head much more pointed in some
forms than in others. Eyes diameter 4| to 6 in the length of the head, varying
with the size and age of the specimen, \\ to 2 diameters from the end of the snout
and the same apart. In old breeding males the eyes are comparatively smaller,
and as much as 3 or 3^ diameters from the end of the suout and also apart.
Teeth in a double zigzag row along the body of the vomer, and in a transverse row
across the anterior portion of that bone where it is joined with the palatine arch.
Fins the first dorsal (except in old breeding males), as a rule, commences some-
what nearer to the snout than to the base of the upper caudal ray ; the height of
the anterior ray usually exceeds the length of its base. Origin of adipose dorsal
fin about midway between the anterior insertion of the base of the rayed dorsal
and the posterior extremity of the upper caudal lobe. . Pectoral as long as the
postorbital portion of the head, or even of the entire head excluding the snout, in
some examples it is more pointed than it is in others. Ventral inserted beneath the
middle or last third of the base of the dorsal fin. Caudal forked in the very
young, emarginate in those of a medium size, becoming square in large examples,
or even rounded. Scales from 13 to 15 rows between the hind end of the
adipose dorsal fin in a row passing downwards and towards the lateral-line.
About 26 or 27 rows from the lateral-line to the base of the ventral fin. Coecal
appendages these differ considerably, apparently being influenced to a great
extent by the locality they inhabit and the food which they can obtain.
Colours these vary as has already been observed (see page 57), not only with
locality but also owing to changes of food. Those from Wales and along the
S.W. coast are of a somewhat darker appearance than those from the Midland
counties and towards the north, and have rather more black but less red spots.

102 PHYSOSTOMI.

I have already (p. 57) alluded to the parr marks of the young being
occasionally continued throughout life in small forms, evidently adding to the
confusion respecting what is a parr.

Varieties. Trout, as already remarked, are exceedingly liable to variation,
due to several causes. Some of these abnormal productions would seem to be
hereditary ; in others the same exciting cause continuing in action occasions
results as in previous generations. Giraldus Cambrensis, lib. iii, c. x, the
Archdeacon of Brecon, who attended Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury,
in a progress through "Wales in 1188, tells us of eels, trout and perch existing
in the lakes of Snowdon which only possessed the right eye, but being
invariably blind with the left. The Fischau, near Mandorf in Germany, was
reputed to contain blind trout (Fr. Ern. Bruckmanni Epist. Itin. xxxvi, Wolfenb.
1734, p. 10). A deformed race of trout is asserted to exist in a small loch in
Invernesshire near Pitmain ; among them there appears to be an arrest of develop-
ment in the upper jaw, giving their heads a slight resemblance to those of bulldogs,
due to the projection of the lower jaw (Encyc. Brit. 7th ed., art. Ang.). Similar
malformations are seen in the "ground trout " of Penyghent (Yorkshire Vertebrata)
and many other places. In Loch Islay exists a race of tailless trout, Salmo
Islayensis, Thomson (Traquair, Journ. Anat. Phy. vi, p. 411, pi. xix, and
Thompson, Science Gossip, 1872, p. 85), which in some streams has been traced to
be due to the action of deleterious matter in the water (see Angler's Note Book,
1880, p. 66). Mr. J. Harvie-Brown observed, about 1876, in the river Carron that
a contraction of the rays of the tail fins of the trout commenced, due it was
universally believed to continuous pollution of the water through the agency of
paper mills. At Malham Tarn, in Yorkshire, 1240 feet above sea level, the trout
are distinguished by a deficiency or malformation of the gill-covers in about one
in every fifteen captured. As I have seen the same result from breeding in
confined places, I believe such to be one at least of the causes, perhaps conjoined
with gill-fever when young. On Plinlimmon, and in adjacent parts of Wales, are
" hunch-backed " trout, having deformed vertebral columns as already alluded to.
In some, at least, of these instances the young are reared where cascades are falling
over heights into a series of pools, and it has seemed to me not unlikely that
either the egg or the fry coming within the reach of such, might suffer injury,
and consequent disease of the spine (so common in fishes) be set up. Barrington
(Phil. Trans. 1767) remarking upon some examples crooked near the tail
continues, " these trout are only caught in a small basin, eight or nine feet deep,
which the river forms after a fall from the rocks." Perch were found to be
similarly affected, the same cause acting apparently on both forms. There are
likewise races in which some local cause has set up local action, as of the stomach
alone. This variety, the Gillaroo (see page 99), due to the food it indulges in, has
the muscular coat of its stomach thickened, which abnormal structure has been
reproduced in succeeding generations. For it must not be assumed, because in
certain examples we are unable to find Lirnnea and other shells, that the fish has
never consumed any ; they may have been digested, or it may have varied its food,
or the shells may have been temporarily unobtainable. In County Derry, in the
river Glenlark in the Munterloney Mountains, "Mr. Sinclaire states that the
water and stones are deeply tinged with a rust colour, of which the trout likewise
partake. Their flesh is very bad and of a metallic flavour ; so bad are they that
the country people will not eat them, and as they are not fished for, the river
abounds in them " (Thompson, iv, 153).

Lunel remarking upon the various specific names that had been given to the
varieties of this species, asserted Salmo fario, 8. lemanus, S.rappii and 8. laciistris,
of Lake Constance to belong to one form which he proposed terming S. variabilis.
Steindachner (Ak. Wiss. Wien, lii, 1865, Nov. 30th) identified 8. detex, Heck,
with 8. fario. Pavesi (Pesci nel Ticino) considered the lake and river-trout of
the Canton to be merely varieties of one species. "Unquestionably," observes
Stoddart (Angler's Companion, 1847, p. 3), "there exists no species of fish
which, judging of it by the external marks, holds claim to so many varieties
as the common freshwater-trout. In Scotland almost every lake, river, and

SALMONID^E. 103

streamlet possesses a breed peculiar in outward appearance to itself." Lord Home
(Yarrell's Fishes) observes of two streams, the Whitadder and its tributary the
Blackadder, that the first flows along a very rocky and gravelly bed, while the
latter rises in mosses, also goes through them in the first half of its course, but
subsequently along a rich and highly cultivated district. The trout in the first
are silvery in colour: while those from the Blackadder are dark with orange
fins. The many varieties are dependent upon external causes and chiefly to the
abundance or the reverse of food and the nature of the water they reside in, the
soil over which it flows, and other causes already treated of (pp. 57, 58).

That this conclusion is based upon proof may be demonstrated by the result
of what has become of the progeny bred from the brook-trout eggs taken in
Hampshire or Bucks, by Buckland or Francis, and transmitted in 1866 to
Tasmania, some of which have become great lake-trout. Mr. Arthur (Trans. Ota-o
Institute, July 9th, 1878) tells us that unlike the Scotch trout which according to
Stoddart show a yearly increase of about one-third of a pound in weight,* in
Otago they grow so rapidly and are so fat that they have reached an average
yearly increment of from 1 lb. to 2 1 lb. Already the various streams have stamped
the trout with local peculiarities : in some they are plump almost to deformity ; their
proportions are not constant neither are their colours. He tells us that examples
were said to have been seen up to 201b. in weight. This year, 1882, one 31 inches
long and weighing 19 lb. was caught at Temuka, its flesh was of a pale orange : last
year Mr. Grwatkin captured one in Canterbury, that turned the scale at 21 lb. The
foregoing facts corroborate my views that all our forms of trout are varieties of
one species, and the so-called hybrids are not mules but mongrels, being the
result of the crossing of varieties. Consequently, sterility need not be anticipated ;
but, on the contrary, improvement is more likely to ensue (should there be no
deficiency in food) than when the stock is bred in and in.

It also tends to show that where small, but not malformed, breeds of trout
exist, riparian propi'ietors had far better investigate the condition of the food-
supply and nature of the waters in their streams than rely upon the introduction
of larger races. For, sooner or later, new stock will become indistinguishable from
the original local breed in colour, form, and size.

Hybrids. That hybrids exist among the Salinonidse and can be artificially
produced by the pisciculturist, f I have already pointed out (p. 59). It was with
much interest that I received in July, 1882, from Sir Pryse Pryse an undoubted
hybrid between the brook-trout and the American charr (Salmo fontinalis). The
example was 9 inches long, having the number of rows of scales descending to the
lateral-line intermediate between the two forms ; the fins similarly modified, while
a row of teeth passed in an irregular manner along the body of the vomer. The
organs of generation were undeveloped, the example for this season at least was
certainly sterile ; some American charr of about the same size, received a few days
subsequently from Howietown, had the eggs and milt in a forward condition.

Names. Aller-fioat or aller trout, this refers to a large one frequenting a hole
in a retired or shady portion of a brook under the roots of an alder tree. In
Herefordshire there is a country proverb respecting the " aul "or " alder :"

" When the bud of the aul is as big as a trout's eye
Then that fish is in season, in the river Wye."

* "A correspondent of the New Sporting Magazine, for November, 1840, observes that a friend
of his has kept trout in a kind of store stream, and having fed them with every kind of food, has
had some increase from 1 lb. to 10 lb. in four years. Mr. Toomer placed a trout of 3 lb. which he
caught in the river in a stew, and in about four years it had grown to about 9 lb." (Daniel, Rural
Sports). At Howietown, a Loch Leven trout hatched in 1875 weighed over 8 lb. in October, 1882.

f At Sir J. Gibson-Maitland's, November 14th, 1882, I was given a living hybrid 11 inches
long, it was the produce of a Loch Leven female milted from a salmon on November 25th, 1879, and
hatched in 1880, consequently nearly three years old, in fact a sterile grilse. 1250 living parrs in
the boxes up to 4 inches in length, were the produce of 20,000 eggs of Loch Leven female trout
milted from the salmon, December 24th, 1881, and hatched March 9th, 1882. Their dorsal fins had
the anterior white edge usually seen in the brook-trout. One had 78 cuecal appendages, a second 61.

104 PHYSOSTOMI.

Bach (Northumberland) also rach-rider, a small fcrout : Shot (Westmoreland).
Breac-precht, Highlands of Scotland. Aleoin, fry before it commences to feed by
the mouth. Sceota, Anglo-Saxon, a "shooter" or "darter:" also iruht. Triotht
is an old mode of spelling the name of this fish.

Be f orel, Dutch. Truite, French.

Habits. Bold, voracious, cunning and shy, it possesses keen sight, while it
dreads anything novel it may observe. In some of our streams which are
constantly fished it appears to have become almost insensible to the charms of the
artificial fly, while, should it have been hooked, it would seem to remember the
circumstance. When an outlying fish is disturbed it dashes away and seems to
warn its neighbours by its flight. Sometimes it is so hungry that it appears to take
almost anything : thunderstorms or darkness may cause it to cease from feeding.
A correspondent of the Zoologist (1847, p. 2030) remarks upon a trout kept in
confinement, and on a minnow being thrown in, it would immediately ascend
nearly to the surface, hover over its prey like a hawk for a few seconds, then dash
down and seize it by the head. The larger fish mostly move about in search of
food of an evening and during the night-time, while they generally swim low,
especially in cold weather. A favourite haunt is often behind a stone, or bank,
while it appears to prefer a bush which gives shade from overhead. It
requires moderately pure water, for a carp will live where a trout will die. It
is alarmed by shadows falling over its haunts and the presence of pike, which
take a heavy toll from these fish in some localities, prevents its feeding
freely, causing its condition to be poor and the sport it affords to be
small. It used to be said that chub drive out trout during the four hot months.
If some trout esteem food which causes their flesh to be tinged with red, while
others in the same water appreciate a different sustenance, and consequently are
not thus tinged, if the Gillaroo eats shells, occasioning thickening of the middle
coat of its stomach, while such diet, as a rule, is rejected by the common variety
of brook-trout, it appears to point out that the tastes of some differ from those of
their companions, while it is a well-known fact that certain forms of food promote
fish-growth more rapidly than others. As already observed, those trout which
principally subsist upon freshwater shrimps, Gammari, are generally of the most
brilliant tints, and the most pinky-coloured flesh, while vegetable diet appears to
genei'ally cause a silvery hue and sometimes a dull appearance.

One about 1} lb. weight, taken in June, 1882, in the Tweed, was found to
contain 11 small trout and one minnow. They do not object to small fish, as
minnows, loaches, sticklebacks, &c, water-rats, young birds, frogs, snails, slugs,
worms, leeches, maggots, flies, beetles, moths, and even water-spiders. They will
even swallow one of their own kind two-thirds as large as themselves.

In Mr. Bucklaud's museum existed an example, the stomach of which was
distended by 2470 eggs of the salmon.

They are out of condition subsequent to the breeding season, and in England
Devonshire is considered one of the earliest counties in which they come into
condition, and are fished for as early as the commencement of February.
Elsewhere there are rivers equally forward.

Parfitt found river mollusca, as Valvata picinalis, Blanorbis marginalis, Bhysa
fontinalis, Lvmneus pereger, in the stomachs of some taken in May, in Powderham
Park, Devonshire, but food varies with streams, &c.

Means of capture. These may be either netting, spearing, tickling, poisoning,
or angling. For the methods of netting these fish I must refer to the introduction.
In the dry weather, at the Orkneys in 1882, the water in the Loch of Harray, on
the west mainland, was induced in volume and rendered tepid by a succession of
hot days. The trout assembled in shoals at the mouths of the burns and were
slaughtered in thousands by netting. Spearing is not now permissible, although
it used to be employed by torchlight. Tickling for these fish in small streams is
occasionally employed with success. The angler has several modes of procedure
at his command, if the fish are large, spinning bait may be employed ; or ground
fishing with worms, or fly-fishing either with the real or imitation insect.
Different rivers, seasons, and even periods of the day have their peculiar varieties

salmonim;. 105

of winged insects acceptable to these fish ; as a rule if the water is clear and low,
and wind is absent, small ones are most suitable : if clearing after a flood, or full
but not discoloured the fly-fisher has more chance of sport, as well as if late in the
season when few flies are born. When the water is opaque a worm or spinning
bait may be tried with success. In small streams real flies and grasshoppers may
be used as bait for hooks on a short line, which is bobbed on to the surface of
the stream from over a bush. If once pricked by the hook it is generally but not
invariably shy : while it is disturbed by flies clumsily thrown or splashing into
the water. Frosty weather checks trout moving, and while snow water, or that
derived from the melting of snow, is running into a stream it is almost useless
attempting to use the rod.

Baits. Worms as brandling, gilt-tail meadow worm, tag worm and red
worm for a large one a well scoured dew worm. A minnow or any small silvery
fish, a loach, or a bull-head with its fins removed.

Breeding. The number of eggs produced by each female trout has been
roughly estimated at 800 for every pound's weight of the fish, which computation
has been observed at the Howietown breeding ponds to be fairly accurate. But
the size of the parent exercises a considerable' influence on that of the eggs, thus
in Sir J. Gibson-Maitland's fish house we found the following average numbers
to be present along each line of grilles. Brook-trout 29 to 30 eggs ; Loch Leven
trout, the parents of which were hatched in 1875, 27 or 28, or from those hatched
in 1877, 32 eggs ; and the American charr 36 to 38.* The colour of the eggs are
as various as observed in the salmon, and I have seen some orange, others straw-
coloured, from two fish taken together out of the same stock pond.

The period at which these fish breed varies in different rivers and districts,
extending from September until February and even March. Mr. Harvie-Brown
at Loch Gorm, in Sunderland, which is greatly fed by snow water from the Bact
of Beumore, has taken trout heavy with spawn in June and July.f It has been
questioned whether these fish are annual or biennial breeders, and Dr. J. Davy
came to the conclusion, after examining a large number captured in open streams,
that only half spawned annually. At Howietown, on the contrary, it would seem
to be the rule that an annual spawning occurs, and though such a question is
difficult to settle an instance in point has been observed. A marked example of
Loch Leven trout was spawned at Sir J. Gibson-Maitland's on November 27th,
1874, and again on November 25th, 1875. At Howietown, where about one
million of gallons of water flow through the ponds every twenty-four hours, the
fish develop spawn and milt as regularly as in their native habitat, some even pass
up the aerating channels forming redds there. But in ponds destitute of streams,
certainly no young are produced, either spawn not being developed, remaining
unfertilized, or else from being deposited in an unsuitable place (see page 91). It
has been generally considered that when the ova of these fish have arrived at a
certain stage the female has no power to retain them but they must be extruded,
a conclusion Sir J. Gibson- Maitland has found reason to doubt, as it seemed to
him that a certain amount of pressure is necessary to assist in the discharge of the
eggs, and which is normally effected by pressing against the gravel forming the
redds. Acting on this opinion he has found it possible to retard the extrusion of
of the eggs for as much as a fortnight or even three weeks, by placing the fish in a
wooden box through which a current of water flows.

A trout's redd or nest is a mound of gravel which would fill one or even two
wheelbarrows, and probably by causing a shallow, assists in aerating the water.
The eggs themselves lie loose among the gravel at from one to two feet below the
surface. Eggs w r hen shed are elastic, but soft and sink in water : when artificially
propagated the milt of the male is generally added to the eggs in the pan prior to
the addition of water, subsequently water is added and the mass is gently stirred

* The rough calculation of eggs of Salmoniiia? is that Sahno salar gives 25,000 to the gallon,
8. levenensis 30,000, S- fario 40,000, 8. fontinalis 80,000.

f Mr. Ugilby (co. Tyrone) observes that there is not a month in the year, during which it is
legal to fish, in which trout do not spawn.

106 PHTSOSTOMI.

with the hand. After a short period the eggs become adherent but gradually absorb
water, distend and are like little round balls. The period for which milt will remain
serviceable after removal from the fish is an interesting subject. On October 23rd,
1874, some was obtained at Howietown at 9 a.m. from a Salmo fario, then carried
to Loch Leven in a tightly corked tube, and used at 1.20 p.m., the impregnation
being perfect. Ova or milt may be kept alive for some hours, but on the addition
of water, death rapidly occurs.

Respecting the artificial propagation of these fish, I think I can do no better
than give a summary of the excellent article on " stocking," by Sir J. Gibson-
Maitlancl. Skill and knowledge are requisite in order to select the fish from
which the milt and the ova are to be collected, and likewise to ensure perfect
impregnation. The ova should be laid down on glass grilles in the hatching
boxes from whence dead ones can be readily removed before the fungus which
grows upon them has time to damage by spreading to such as are in its vicinity.
When the eyes of the embryo commence to be visible an increased supply of
oxygen is necessary. When the embryo is sufficiently developed to enable the
eggs to be handled with impunity, they may be packed in trays, on damp swans-
down, and forwarded to their ultimate destination. Care has to be taken that the
water for the hatching-house is constant in its supply, equable as to its tempera-
ture, and not loaded with sand or any impurities, that frost is kept out, and
though early eggs are the best, eyed ova should not be sent to a cold locality where
it would have to battle with one or two months' continuous frost, on the other
hand transmitting it to a warmer climate care must be taken to meet the tempera-
ture en route which almost of necessity sets the eggs hatching.

These eyed eggs are turned down into artificially and carefully constructed
redds, scattered all over the district in close proximity to the best feeding grounds
and ripples for the fry. Such absolute purity of the water flowing over the redds
is not required for eyed ova as it is for the eggs prior to this period, still
discoloured water should never be employed. It is also requisite that the redd
be situated near a stream of less pure water, as the absence of fine particles so
necessary for the health of the embryo, is not satisfying to an active young trout
of a few weeks old. A natural river temperature of 50 will always produce
ample food for the young fry. Prior to the absorption of the umbilical sac they
should not be placed in ponds or muddy water. They will not bear much
handling but bear carriage very well : a 40-gallon tank being sufficient for the
conveyance of about 15,000 which have been feeding for more than a month,
except for very long journeys when a supplementary small tank requires to be
added, which altogether saves the necessity of handling the fry. They can be
reared in small properly constructed ponds and subsequently turned into deep water.

The normal period eggs take hatching is found when the water is kept at about
4410 degrees to be as follows at Howietown : Salmo fario, 71 days ; S. levenensis,
72 ; S. fontinalis, 73 ; 8. levenensis crossed by S. salar, 75 ; and 8. salar, 77 days.
But as already observed lowering temperature delays hatching, increasing it
hastens such on (see pages 65 and 107).

For the purpose of stocking pieces of water with trout, either eggs or young
fish may be obtained from a breeding establishment. It is highly desirable, prior
to receiving such, that a careful examination should be made that the nurseries
do not contain their enemies, as bull heads, Cottus gobio, which will eat them as
rapidly as it can find them. At the Howietown fishery* it is suggested that
streams with sediment in the water or a liability to floods are unsuited for
depositing ova, and fry are recommended instead.

In transmitting ova those which are partially eyed are recommended, and are
laid down in gravel redds in some small streams contiguous to the rivers or lakes
it is desired to stock. Eggs being kept in glass grilles give the strongest embryos
and healthiest fry.

The time necessary for preparing young trout for transport varies from three or
four days in the case of yearlings, to as many weeks for large examples. The

* Circular, dated Howietown, Stirling, 1882.

SALMONIDiE. 107

yearlings are sufficiently strong to find their own food, thus avoiding the principal
cause of mortality among fry, which is starvation. They soon accommodate them-
selves to new pieces of water. Two-year-olds are found to succeed best where
coarse fish or large fish already exist in the water. It has been found that there
is no difficulty in conveying trout in iced water for any journey not exceeding
twenty-four hours. That unless the water which is to be stocked is of similar
temperature some loss will arise from inflammation of the gills, they are
consequently carried best in cold weather.

Hybrids. At Howietown the following crosses were made : November 27th,
1874, between a female Loch Leven trout and a male sea-trout, they hatched
March 20th and 21st, 1875. On December 3rd, between a female common burn
or brook-trout and the milt of the sea-frrout, they hatched March 21st, 1875. Sea-
trouts' eggs with burn trout milt commenced to hatch on the 116th day : the
young have become indistinguishable from the common stock. On November
15th, 1882, Sir James Gibson-Maitland commenced the following experiments at
Howietown while I was present. 8000 ova of Salmo fontinalis were milted from
a S. levenensis, and were placed in hatching box no. 104. 3000 ova of 8. levenensis
were milted from a S. fontinalis and deposited in box no. 108. 9000 ova of
S. fontinalis were milted from a charr which has been termed 8. struanensis, and
placed in box no. 115.

Life history. All the various forms of trout have their parr stage. The normal
rate of growth in the ponds at Howietown I have already alluded to (see page 103).
Mr. Stoddart gives the result of an interesting experiment on young trout : " Fish
were placed in three separate tanks, one of which was supplied daily with worms,
another with live minnows, and the third with those small dark-coloured water-flies
which are to be found moving about on the surface under banks and sheltered
places. The trout fed on worms grew slowly, and had a lean appearance ; those
nourished on minnows which, it was observed, they darted at with great voracity
became much larger ; while such as were fattened upon flies only, attained in a
short time prodigious dimensions, weighing twice as much as both the others
together, although the quantity of food swallowed by them was in nowise so great."
The size to which they attain depends upon the suitability of the water inhabited
and the amount of available food. Thus in some mountainous districts they may
never exceed 3 or 4 ounces in weight, while young hatched from the same batch of
eggs may attain to pounds. They are a long-lived fish : one was twenty-eight years
in a well in Dumbarton Castle ; another is said to have been fifty-three years in a
well in the orchard of Mr. Mossop, of Board Hall, near Broughton-in-Furness.

As food. Its value differs with the waters from whence it has been taken. Its
old name was " the venison of the waters," and denotes the general estimation in
which it was, and is still, held. It is in the best season from May until the end of
September, deteriorating in and after the breeding period. Some consider the
females as food to be better than the males.

Habitat. The colder and temperate portions of the northern hemisphere,
descending in Asia as far south as the Hindoo Koosh, but not normally present in
any portion of Hindostan. Heber, mistaking a spotted carp, Barilius, for a trout,
asserted they were found on the Himalayas, on which authority Couch gave India
as one of its habitats. It has been introduced on the Neilgherry range of hills
in Southern India. It has been artificially introduced into many countries in the
southern hemisphere. In the Orkneys it is found in great plenty in every burn,
and generally extended throughout the rivers and lakes of the British Isles when
unchecked by pollutions. Some exceptions, however, to this general rule would
seem to occur, thus in Norfolk, we are told, it is found in small numbers in the
higher parts of the Bure, the Ware, and some of their tributaries, but not in the
Waveney (Lubbock).

A trout upwards of 21 lb. and measiiring 41| inches in length, was taken in
a small tributary of the Trent at Drayton Manor, and sent by Sir Robert Peel to
Yarrell. In 1880 Buckland made a cast of one 17 lb. weight, captured at Reading.
July 11th, 1882, one 20 lb. weight was secured in Lough Derg, an expansion of
the Shannon (S. Hurley).

108 PHYSOSTOMT.

B. Vomerine teeth restricted to near the head of that bone (Salvelini).

When treating of the group Salmones (p. 53) I gave a short synopsis of the
views held by our later naturalists respecting which each considered to be species
or referred to varieties. I propose taking the same course with the charrs Salvelini.

Willughby (1686) places under one head JJmbla minor, Gesner the Reutele of
South Germany, the Torgoch of Wales and Westmoreland, and the red charr of
Windermere, table no. 7. He also alludes to the gelt or gilt charr of Westmoreland,
which he refers to Garpio lacus Benaci of Rondelet ; he likewise figures it table
no. 5.

Ray (1713) held the same views as Willughby.

Pennant (1776) figures the charr, and asserts his opinion that the case charr,
the gelt or silver charr, i.e., one which has not spawned the preceding season,
and on that account is reckoned to be in the greatest perfection, the red charr, and
those of Loch Inch in Scotland, are all probably one species. He observes that
the variety case charr spawns about Michaelmas, while the gilt charr does so from
the beginning of January to the end of March. He also alludes to the Welsh
charr.

Donovan (1804) gave a figure of what he considered the gilt charr of
Pennant, Salmo alpinus, Linn. ; also a plate of Salmo savelinus, Bloch, the torgoch
of the Welsh, then said to be confined to the waters of Llyn Cawellyn, one of the
Alpine lakes situated in the deep valley on the west side of Snowdon. He
considered that it differed from the charrs of Windermere.

Turton (1807) agreed with Donovan, as did also Fleming (1828). Jenyns
(1835) held the same opinions, but termed the Alpine charr of Donovan S. umbla.
Yarrell (1836) held the same views as Jenyns, but in his second edition (1841) as
well as in his third (1859), all our British forms are held to be varieties of one
species.

Agassiz (1834) believed that all our British forms were identical with the
Ombre chevalier of the Lake of Geneva.

Richardson (1835) placed (1) 8. umbla as synonymous with S. alpinus and
S. salvelinus of Linnams, and also with the species found in the Lake of Geneva,
but he desired his readers to remember that the history of the charr, whether
one or more kinds, had not up to that time been clearly made out. In
Windermere he considered that the case charr ascended rivers, spawning about
Michaelmas, while the red charr deposited its ova along the shores of the lake, and
not until the end of December or the beginning of the year.

Parnell (1838) classed our northern charr as S. umbla, Linnseus.

Thompson (1840), and subsequently in 1851, held that all the forms of British
and Irish charr are varieties of one species, the 8. umbla, Linnaeus.

White (1851) placed all the British examples in his catalogue of the fish in
the National Museum as pertaining to S. umbla.

Dr. Giinther (1866), as in the Salmones so in the Salvelini, has largely
augmented the number of what he considered British species, although he rejects
8. umbla and S. salvelinus as British forms. He gives (1) 8. alpinus, vertebrae
59-62, ccecal appendages 36-42 ; (2) 8. Jcillinensis, vert. 62, coec. pyl. 44-52 ; (3)
S. Willughbii, vert. 59-62, coec. pyl. 32-44; (4) 8. perisii, vert. 61, ccec. pyl. 36 ;
(5) 8. grayi, vert. 60, ccec. pyl. 37 ; (6) S. Colii, vert. 63, ccec. pyl. 42.

Sir J. Gibson-Maitland (1881) added 8. struanensis.

8. fontinalis, or the American charr, has likewise to be added to the British
forms, being now extensively distributed throughout the country.

Up to 1866 Pennant, Agassiz, Yarrell, and White admitted one form of charr
as British, while Donovan, Turton, Fleming, and Jenyns believed in two.
Giinther increased them to six, subsequently S. struanensis was added, and the
American charr widely propagated.

Widegrem (1864) asserted that in Scandinavia there exist two races of charr,
the larger being found in Lapland, Lake Wetter, and other lakes ; while the
smaller is present in pieces of water of less size as those of Jemtland, Wermland,

SALMONIDiE. 109

Smaland and Norway. These two races lie held to be simply modifications of one
species, Salmo alpinus, the stebling of South Germany of which 8. umbla is a
synonym. Holding these opinions which were identical with those of Agassiz and
others, he entered his protest against the validity of Dr. Giinther's new species, which
he deemed as merely so many additions to the synonymy of S. alpinns. Collett,
Norges Fiske (1875), considers all the charr to pertain to one form, so also does
Malm, and Moreau in his Fishes of France (1881) arrives at the conclusion that
all the charrs of that country are a single species, S. umbla, which he considers
identical with S. salvelinus.

In the Zoological Record of 1864, Dr. Giinther disputes the possibility of the
size of the teeth having any bearing on the food these fish consume, maintaining
that such may even be a reason towards instituting a species. However, in the
artificial reai"ing of Salmonoids it has been found that some young do take on
cannibal propensities and are furnished with larger teeth than then 1 neighbours.
Referring to the size of the eggs Dr. Giinther likewise differs with the Scandinavian
zoologists, holding that those who may have a more extensive knowledge of fishes
" know that the size of the ova is not only invariably the same in individuals of
whatever size, but, as far as our experience reaches, is even often characteristic of
the species of a genus." Here I must refer to page 105, where I have shown that
the size of the eggs may depend on the age of the fish.

There appear to be three different main reasons for dividing the British charrs
into several species, the colour, the number of vei'tebros, and of the ccecal
appendages.

The colours in the charr do not vary to so great an extent as they do in the
trout, due to their residing in deeper waters and usually merely ascending towards
the surface at night time to feed, while other changes in tint are consequent upon
the breeding season. In the Lakes of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire,
observes Jenyns, this fish in its ordinary state is the case charr of Pennant ; when
exhibiting the bright crimson belly which it assumes before spawning, it is called
the red charr ; when out of season the spawn having* been shed, it is distinguished
by the name of the gilt charr. Thompson observed that he had examined in a
fresh state charr from Windermere, from Lock Grannock (Scotland), and Lough
Melvin (Ireland), and preserved in spirits or dry from nine other lakes in
Scotland or Ireland. Examinations of these led him to believe that there exists
but one species : one, however, that like the Salmo fario is subject to extraordinary
variety. In one lake the male fish can at a glance be distinguished from the
female either by colour or by the many characters which are comprised under
" form." In another, so similar are the sexes in every external character, that
without the aid of dissection they cannot be determined. In size we find the
species ordinarily attain twice the length and several times the weight in one lake
that it does in another, although the area of their waters is of similar extent ;
indeed, in some of the largest lakes this fish will be found not to attain near the
size it does in some others, which are but pools in comparison ; there are,
however, various influences which account satisfactorily for such differences.
In the form of the body again, we find the species, when in equally high
condition, to be in one lake herring-like and in another approximating to the
roundness of the eel. So manifold are the differences presented by the charr
from various localities, that it would be tedious and perhaps useless to point them
out in every case. A correspondent in The Field (April 22, 1882), speaking of
the white trout of Quebec, observes that the best authorities seem to agree that
the sea-trout of the provinces is simply a Salmo fontinalis that has migrated into
salt water and changed its colour by that means. This leads us to inquire
whether we ought to agree with Agassiz, Thompson, and others that the number
of species of charr in these islands is limited to one which is subject to great
variations in form, in colour, and other characters due to physical causes ? Or
should we adopt the theories of those who see at least half-a-dozen species in the
British Isles, and anticipate many more being discovered when the lochs of
Scotland and the loughs of Ireland have been exhaustively explored ?

The number of vertebras. The six forms described by Dr. Giinther are said

110 PHYSOSTOMI.

to have these varying between 59 and 63, but as in type examples of two forms in
the British Museum we are informed from 59 to 62 were present, the existence of
an additional one in a specimen of 8- colii can therefore hardly be a reason for
instituting an additional species (see page 55).

The number of ccecal appendages. The extreme variation in all the foregoing
six species is given at from 36 to 52, while we are informed that in 8. Willughbii
from 32* to 44 are present in examples in the National Collection. I have
already shown how inconstant are the numbers of these appendages among the
Salmonidae (see page 56).

If we seek to investigate the history of these fishes from the earliest times,
and inquire of geologists as to what account they are able to furnish, we are told
that the Salmonido3 are a comparatively recently evolved family, their very
existence in a fossil form (if we exclude Mallotus) being unknown. Mr. Symonds,
in the last edition of the Records of the Rocks, observes : "I have fished in
and visited many of the lakes in Great Britain, where the charr, Coregoni, and
great lake-trout (Salmo ferox) are known, but I never saw one in which they still
exist that is not either a glacier lake, or rock basin, or that is not dammed or
otherwise surrounded by glacial moraine matter. They are also inhabitants of the
lakes of Sweden and Norway, which everywhere bear traces of the glacial epoch
and its close, and seem to me to be (like the Alpine plants that still linger among
the mountains) fishes of that colder period when the last of the glaciers still hung
to the combes of the Highlands of Scotland and Wales."

Doubtless the charr prefer the colder north to the more temperate portions
of the globe ; and moderately still waters. Among the fishes brought by the
late Arctic expeditions were examples of charr very similar, if not identical with
British forms, thus seeming to show a near relationship one with the other.
While in Nordenskiold's Arctic voyages it is recorded that the young of S. alpinus,
three inches long, were captured on the eastern side of Wijde Bay in June, 1861.

Mr. Brooke, writing respecting a species of Irish charr, observes that " Lough
Eske (where it was captured) was the crater of an extinct volcano, as suggested
by Dr. Wilde, of Dublin."

Many and various reasons have been advanced by different persons against the
enactment of laws for the protection of fishes, especially charr, and I observe
that Mr. Houghton, in his British Freshwater Fishes, considers that "the
extension of the Salmon Act to charr is a great mistake. The only time and
that time is of short duration when charr can be taken in any numbers is in
October and November, when they leave their deep-water haunts for the
shallower parts of the lakes. The destructive agency of man, limited as it is to
one or two months' duration, could have but little effect in causing a diminution
of the species in the extensive depths of our great lakes, which, for five-sixths of
the year, provide safe and unassailable harbours." On the other hand it has been
asserted that the charr of Lough Neagh, in Ireland, have been exterminated by
man within the last forty years, showing his power, when unchecked by legislative
enactments, of effectually accomplishing such a destruction. In Land and Water
for December 27, 1879, is an interesting article upon the result following the
preservation of the Llanberris charr. Two large freshwater lakes exist, joined
together by a small river. In November the charr pass up this stream to the
lower portion of the upper lake to spawn, having accomplished which they return
to the lower lake. The proprietors, acting on the principle enunciated above,
used to net them at the spawning period ; but the Salmon Act of 1873 prohibited
the capture of these fish between October 1 and February 1, so the killing of these
spawning charr has been stopped. Prior to 1874 they were only to be seen here
and there in shoals of a score or so, whereas now they may be observed in
hundreds, averaging about nine fish to 2 lb. weight. In September, 1879, an
angler, with a worm bait, captured in one evening 23 lb. weight of charr, and as
soon as the news got abroad many others took to angling for these fish, and all

* I have examined one from the Lakes which only had 28.

SALMONID^E. Ill

had good sport. This continued until close-time, and some days hundreds of
quarrymen might be seen fishing, some in boats, others from the shore, while as
much as 45 lb. a day has fallen to the share of one rod, a bait having been almost
invariably used, although a few were taken with a fly.

A correspondent of The Field, October 28, 1882, remarks upon night fishing
for charr with well scoured brandlings and line tackle in North Wales. All is
done by feel, and, when a vigorous tug occurs at your line, one has to strike; at
the approach of day the charr begin to bite savagely, as dawn commences the
biting ceases, and the fish disappear as if by magic.

Respecting the Windermere fishing for 1881 it was remarked in Land and
Water, November 26, 1881, that the charr fishing was, as usual, very profitable.
There can be no better argument in favour of a close season and protection than
the great increase in the value of the charr fisheries since such was applied and
protection afforded to the fish.

The mode which is generally carried on by the fishermen as described in The
Field is with what is termed a plumb line, which is free to all, and a great number
of the natives on the shores of the lake gain a good livelihood by supplying the
strangers and hotels with the fish.

Charr fishing with the plumb line usually commences about the beginning of
March, and at that time the fish are got about thirty yards from the surface and
in the deepest parts of the lake. As the weather gets warmer they gradually
approach the top, and although they are frequently to be seen on a warm day
leaping at the flies on the water, yet it is an unheard-of thing on Windermere to
cast for them with a rod. The plumb line for charr is made of strong cord, and
varies in length according to the number of baits which are to be put on it ; but
it is usually between forty and fifty yards long, and this is sufficient to carry five
baits. At the end of the line is a lead sinker, weighing about If lb., having a
small wing fixed in it, which assists in preventing it from revolving, although it is
fixed to the main line with a strong swivel. To this line is attached at intervals
of six or seven yards, short lines, or, as they are called by the fishermen, droppers,
varying in length from six to ten yards, the shortest line being that nearest the
bottom of the main line. What is generally used at Windermere, is a " phantom "
made by the fishermen themselves, from sheets coppered on one side and silvered
or clear on the other, which can be procured from any coppersmith or ironmonger.
The fishermen cut them out with a pair of strong scissors, shaping them to their
taste. A small treble hook is put on the phantom, and two yards of strong gut,
having at least two swivels, and the remainder of the short line, or " dropper,"
may be of fine cord. Two lines such as are here described are always used in
fishing for charr, one on each side of the boat.

Having reached the fishing ground, the boat must be rowed slowly, and the
sinker is put over tbe side, and the line allowed to sink until the dropper
next to it is reached, when the main line is temporarily fixed, until the " dropper"
and phantom is put out ; the main line is then loosened and sunk further, until
the next " dropper " is reached and put out, and so on until the whole line is out.
This having been done the end of the main line is attached to the top of a strong
rod (a young sapling does very well), about fourteen or sixteen feet long, supple
at the top, but not too much so, and then the rod is made to rest over the stern
of the boat at the side upon which the line has been put out, and the butt end
securely fixed in the bottom of the boat. When this has been done the second
line may be put out at the side of the boat, in the same way as the first line, and
secured with a rod. Care must be taken to have the boat always moving, other-
wise the lines will foul.

It would appear that the preservation of charr leads to a substantial increase
in their numbers, and augmentation in the food-producing property of the lake
where such is carried out. While these fishes are not so very indifferent to bait
and flies as some persons would lead us to believe, the angler with a bait appears
to have more chance of sport than the fly-fisher, but the charr of Windermere
usually will not rise to the fly, while the Welsh torgoch takes it freely.

112 PHTSOSTOMI.

Mr. Harvie-Brown informs me of a chain of loc-hs in Scotland containing
charr. In one small, deep pool of crystal-clear water they are of a larger size
than those inhabiting the lochs lower in the valley. In a perfectly dead calm
they rise, sometimes freely, to a certain fly, but cease whenever a ripple disturbs
the surface. As many as six dozen have been taken by one rod in a single day.
One can see several feet down into this basin of pure water in a calm, and perceive
the fish floating upwards and sucking in the fly, as they seldom dash at it like a
trout.

Charr, says Mr. Jackson, except for a few weeks in the year when it appears
to live on flies, preys on all small fish and captures them, even larger than would
be supposed possible by any one who has not taken (as I have) a perch nearly
two inches long out of a charr about nine inches in length.

3. Salmo alpinus,* Plate CXVII, fig. 1.

Umbla minor, Gesner, p. 1201 ; Willughby, p. 19G, t. N. 7; Ray, p. 65. Salmo
Lemani lacus seu Umbla, Rondel, ii, p. 160 ; Willughby, p. 197, t. N. 5 ; Ray,
p. 66 (Gilt charre). Charr, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776), iii, 305, pi. lx and
(Ed. 1812) iii, p. 407, pi. lxi. ; Low, Fauna Oread, p. 234.

Salmo alpinus, Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 117, no. 310, Syst. Nat. i, p. 510; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1370; Bonn. Enc. Ich. p. 162, pi. lxvii ; f. 272; Nilss. Skand. Faun.
Fisk. p. 426 ; Jardine, Brit. Ass. vol. iv, p. 614 : Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863,
p. 8 and Catal. vi, p. 127 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 160.

Salmo umbla, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 511 ; Bloch, t. ci ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1371 ;
Bonn. Enc. Ich. p. 164; Jurine, Poiss. Lac Leman, pi. v; Agassiz, Poiss. d'eau
douce, pi. ix, x and xi ; Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 233 ; Parnell, Mem. Wern. Soc. vii,
p. 308 and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 148 ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 78 ;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 160 ; Heckel and Kner, Siisswasserf. p. 285 ;
Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 39 and Catal. vi, p. 125 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
iii, p. 530, f. 207.

Salmo salvelinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 511 ; Bloch, t. xcix ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1370 ;
Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 162, pi. lxvii, f. 273 ; Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 246 ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 3), i, p. 241 ; Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 38, 1863,
p. 7 and Catal. vi, p. 126; Blanchard, Poiss. France, p. 444, f. 115.

Alpine charr, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 272, pi. cexxvi.

Salvelinus alpinus, Malm, Bohuslaus Fauna, p. 540.

Variety a. Salmo perisii, Plate CXIX, fig. 2.

Torgoch, Willughby, p. 196. Umbla minor, Gesner; Farrington, Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. 1755, p. 210. Torgoch, Pennant, Brit. Zool. 1. c. Red charre or Torgoch,
Ray, 1. c.

Salmo salvelinus, Donovan, Brit. Fish, v, pi. cxii ; Turton, p. 104 ; Jenyns,
Brit. Vert. p. 428; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 1), ii, p. 70, c. fig. (ed. 2), ii, p. 121.

Salmo umbla, Jenyns, p. 427.

Salmo cambricus, Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 49, pi. vi (not Donovan).

Salmo perisii, Gunther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1865, xv, p. 75, and Catal.
vi, p. 133 ; Houghton, British Freshwater Fishes, p. 141, c. fig.

Torgoch, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 264, pi. cexxiii.

D. 12-13(V) I 0, P. 12, V. 9, A. 11-12(V)> 0. 21, L.l. 125-135, Vert. 61, Ccec.
pyl. 36.

This form has the teeth of moderate size and the edges of the
anterior nostril forming a small flap. Gill covers overlapping the root of the

* Space will only permit a selection of references being made.

SALMONID/E. 113

pectoral fin* Rayed dorsal fin 2/3 the length of the head : pectoral reaching more
than half the distance to the base of the ventral. Sides -with numerous red spots :
belly red in the adult : pectoral, ventral and anal fins with white upper or anterior
edges. There are said to be 170 rows of scales descending to the lateral-line.

Stated to be a smaller form than the Windermere charr, seldom exceeding 12 or
13 iuches in length.

Names. Torgoch in Wales signifies tor "a belly", and goch "red": the red
charr.

Habits. Said to emerge from the depths of the lakes seeking the shallows
for a short period in midwinter. Rises to a fly.

The example figured is one of the British Museum specimens 9 inches in
length, sent from the Lake of Llanberris by Mr. T. Ellis. It has 135 scales
along the lateral-line.

*o

Variety b. Salmo Willughbii, Plate CXVII, fig. 2.

Charr of Windermere, Willugh. 1. c. ; Case charr, Pennant, 1. c. and Ray, 1. c.

Salmo alpinus, Donovan, Brit. Fish. pi. lxi ; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 104;
Fleming, Brit. An. p. 180.

Salmo umbla, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 427 ; Thompson, Ann. and Mag. 1840. vi,
p. 439.

Salmo Willughbii, Giinther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 46, pi. v, 1863, p. 11, and
Catal. vi, p. 131.

Salmo struanensis, Gibson-Maitland, Field, Oct. 8th, 1881, p. 516.

Willughbt/s charr, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 262, pi. cexxii.

D. 12-13 (V) | 0, P. 13-14, V. 9-10, A. 11-12 ( ^), C. 19, L.l. 126, Vert.
59-62, Ccec. pyl. 28-44.

Teeth Of moderate strength, 4 in each premaxillary ; 20 in each maxillary.
Fins pectoral reaches more than half-way to the root of the ventral. Colours
sides with red dots : belly red : pectoral, ventral and anal with white margins.

Scales said to have 180. The one figured, from a specimen 8 inches long,
(S. Struanensis) had 126 along the lateral-line. Eight others from the Lakes
had from 118 to 128.

Variety c Salmo Killinensis,f Plate CXVIII, fig. 1.

Giinther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 699, pi. xl, and Catal. vi, p. 130 ; Houghton,
Brit. Freshwater Fish. p. 145. c. fig.

? Salmo arcturus, Giinther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 294, pi. xxxiii.

D - 14(b -to) I 0, P. 13, V. 9, A. 13 CiV), C. 19, L. 1. 1 35, Vert. 62, Ccec. pyl. 44-52.

Length of head 4|-, of caudal fin Q\, height of body 4^ in the total length.
Eyes diameter about 1/6 of the length of the head, 2 diameters from the
end of the snout, and also apart. Form of preopercle varies in different
specimens ; subopercle mostly short and high. Maxilla reaches to behind the
orbit. Teeth small. Fins dorsal, pectoral, and ventral well developed.
Scales D. Giinther counts 180 rows descending on to the lateral-line ; in the
example figured ther-e were 135 pierced scales along the latei*al-line. Colours
dark, sides with few light spots. In some the anterior edges of the lower fins are
light coloured.

The example figured is 12j inches long in the National collection : it was
obtained by the late Mr. Gould from Loch Killin, Inverness-shire, in October :
it has been disembowelled.

* These appearances are not peculiar to this variety.

f 8. arcturus, Giinther, the most northern Salmonoid recorded, N. lat. 80 28' by 34' is differen-
tiated from 8. killinensis owing to its being a little more slender ! Malmgren (iEfv. Sven. Vet.
Akad. Fork. 1865, p. 534) remarks upon an example of Salmo alpinus, 76 millim. long, found in
a river in Northern Spitsbergen.

8

114 PHYSOSTOMI.

Variety d. Salmo Grayii, Plate CXIX, fig. 1.

Salmo Alpinus, Dubourdieu, Hist. Co. Antrim, i, p. 119; Thompson, Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist, 1840, vi, p. 448.

Salmo umbla, Thompson, 1. c. p. 439 (yotmg) and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 160.

Salmo Qrayi, Giinther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 51, pi. vii, and 1863, p. 12,
and Catal. Fish. Brit. Museum, vi, p. 136 ; Houghton, Brit. Freshwater Fishes,
p. 139, c. fig.

Gray's charr, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 267, pi. ccxxiv.

D. 13-14 (^o) I 0, P. 13-14, V. 9, A. 12 (f ), C. 21, L. 1. 125-140, L. tr. 31/30,

Coec. pyl. 37, Vert. 60.

Lower jaw feeble. Teeth small, 4 on each premaxillary and about 16 on
each maxillary. Fins Dorsal commences slightly nearer the snout than in the
other forms, the fin being in the centre of the length of the back. Pectoral
terminates at no great distance from the ventral : fins well developed. Scales
19 rows from the hind edge of the adipose dorsal fin downwards and forwards to
the lateral-line : 25 rows between the lateral-line and the base of the ventral fin :
125 to 140 rows along the lateral-line. Colours sides with orange dots : fins with
or without a light edge.

Thompson observes of the charr of Lough Melvin, that " the males are
generally more gracefully formed than the females, and most of them are rather
brighter in colour, but there is no external character so strikingly different as to
lead to a certain knowledge of the sex : some of the largest finned are females."
They are termed "fresh-water herrings " in Lough Melvin. When cooked the
flesh is pale and its taste insipid.

Breeding. Mr. Houghton received some from Lough Melvin in November, the
males had not parted with their milt, nor the females with their ova.

The example figured is from a male in the British Museum collection,
10"2 inches in length.

Variety e. Salmo Colii, Plate CXVIII, fig. 2.

Salmo Colii, Giinther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863, p. 12, pi. and Catal. Fish. Brit.
Mus. vi, p. 138; Houghton, British Freshwater Fishes, p. 138, c. fig.
Coles charr, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 269, pi. ccxxv.

D. 13-14 (/ft) | 0, P. 13, V. 9, A. 12 (--), C. 19, L. 1. 125-128, L. tr.
31/30. Ccec. pyl. 42, Vert. 63.

Teeth very small, 4 to 6 in each premaxillary, 14 to 17 in each maxillary.
Fins Pectoral not reaching nearly to the ventral. Ventral and anal fins with a
narrow white anterior edge. Scales 125 rows along the lateral-line, and 160
descending to it : 18 rows between the hind edge of the adipose dorsal fin and the
lateral-line : and 25 from the lateral-line to the base of the ventral fin.

The form of S. Colii appears to be principally distinguished from S. Grayi by
the comparative shortness of its pectoral fins.

The figure is from a male example, 8"2 inches in length, in the National
Museum, from Lough Eske (EsJc or Yesh, "a fish"), the crater of an extinct
volcano. It is also found in L. Dan.

B. x-xi, D. 12-14 (/ft) | 0, P. 12-14, V. 9-10, A. 11-13 (/ft) C. 19-21, L. 1.
125-145, L. tr. 31/30, Coec pyl. 28-62, Vert. 59-63.

Length of head 4f to 5j, of caudal fin 6 to 6, height of body 4 to 5 in the
total length. Eyes size depends much on age, sex, and nature of locality
from whence procured : usually situated just in front of the middle of the length
of the head, from l to 2 diameters from the end of the snout and the same
distance apart. In some the comparative height of the body is much greater than
in others, and dependant on food, health, and the vicinity of the breeding season,
the kelts becoming emaciated. The maxilla in some extends to beneath the last
third of the orbit, in others to beyond the vertical from its hind margin, while it

SALMONID^] 115

is likewise slightly more strongly developed in some than it is in others. The
lower jaw in some varieties, as the torgoch of Wales, may be longer anteriorly
than the upper jaw. The opercular pieces are of as diverse shapes in the charr as
described in the trout, and frequently are dissimilar in the opposite sides of the
head. Teeth present in the jaws and in a line across the vomer near its anterior
extremity, and opposite the teeth of the palatine arch, none along the body of the
vomer. Fins dorsal usually commences about midway between the end of the
snout and the base of the caudal fin, in some examples a little nearer the snout.
The pectoral and other fins are of varying lengths in accordance with locality,
sex, and other varying conditions. Scales small and a much larger number of
rows descending from the back of the lateral-line, than there are of pierced rows
along its whole extent (see below). Cuecal appendages these vary considerably,
in Loch Inch 38 (Thompson) ; L. Rannoch, 28 ; the Lakes, 28-44, Dr. Giinther
detected from 36 to 52, and the smallest number in those from Windermere, 36,
from the same locality I possess an example with 28, and found the same number
in a specimen received as $. struanensis. It is evident they are as inconstant as in
the trout. Colours these again vary, but as a general rale the belly, prior to
spawning, becomes of a crimson or claret colour, while there are generally some
light-coloured orange or black spots on the body and head. The front edge of the
dorsal, ventral, and caudal as well as the upper edge of the pectoral are often of a
pare white or orange colour. The variation in tints and shades are not so great
as in the trout (see page 109). In some, the ventral, anal, lower portion of
the pectoral, and hind edge of the caudal partake of the scarlet colour of the
abdomen.

Varieties in colour. " By such alone," observes Dr. Giinther, " fresh specimens
of Salmo salvelinus and S. umbla, of S. Grayii and S. Willughbii, may be always
distinguished," and in his interesting division of the British species into many, he
divides it first in accordance with the development of the jaws and size of the
teeth, an inconstant character, as I have observed (page 109). It is then sub-
divided in respect to the length of the pectoral fins : but here it is evident that
the question of sex, locality where hatched and reared, and many other local
circumstances, must be taken into consideration. I examined eight specimens
received from the lakes, and found as follows : All were from 8^- to 9 inches in
length ; in two the pectoral extended just half the distance to the base of the
ventral, and in the remainder If, 1 T 3 T , l|i, If, 2 T \-, and 2^ in the interspace,
clearly showing that this is not a character on which too much reliance should be
placed.

The next subdivision is into whether the dorsal fin contains 13 or 14 rays.
Such an enumeration is evidently open to uncertainty, unless it is taken into
consideration and recorded how many undivided and how many branched rays are
present. The first few which are undivided are minute, one or two may even be
wanting. Thus in the 8 examples from the same locality already referred to I
found from 3 to 4 undivided, and 9 to 10 divided rays in the dorsal fin, and
similarly in the anal, 3 to 4 undivided and 8 to 9 divided rays. Moreau, in
France, finds D. ^ s 5 , A. -flf. This character, therefore, is unreliable.

As to the comparative height of the body that varies with sex, season and food,
and cannot be otherwise than a very uncertain element in the discrimination of a
species.

As regards external characters, Dr. Giinther observed (1862) that " dried and
stuffed specimens of charr are of little or no use." One would have supposed from
this that the colours, scales, and size of the fins would afford no criterion as to
species. In 1864 the same author remarked that" the difference in the size of the
scales is one of the most constant and important characters in salmonoids."

In examining numerous examples of Salmo fontinalis reared in this country,
one cannot resist being struck with the considerable differences which occur as to
the number of the scales, and the consequent inconstancy of this factor as a
criterion for-species. Taking the pierced scales along the lateral-line, I possess
specimens which have from 122 to 142 : but it is in the number of irregular rows
which descend from the back to the lateral-lino where the greatest diversitv occurs,

8 * *

11 G PHYSOSTOMI.

while it is here that Dr. Giinther counts. Although in 8 of my British examphs
the difference in the number of pierced scales along the lateral-line does not exceed
20, I find from 185 to 235 rows descending to the lateral-line, or a variation of 50
scales. Taking the whole of the reputed British species, the extreme variation
recorded is 70 rows. If, therefore, among 8 examples of American charr received
from two localities I can observe a difference in number of at least 50 rows of
scales descending from the back to the lateral-line, the extreme variation of 70
among specimens of charr obtained throughout the extent of Great Britain and
Ireland appears hardly sufficient grounds for instituting distinct species. Sir
W. Jardine considered that " the northern, or Sutherland charr," has more elon-
gated scales than the " southern charr," the scales of which he described as being
more orbicular.

" The charr of Hawswater," observes Dr. J. Davy, " which is known to feed
a good deal on insects, is a small and slender fish in comparison with the charr of
Windermere, which feeds more at the bottom and has a less precarious supply,
especially of Squillce, which abound in the lake. The one takes the artificial fly
freely ; the other that of Windermere is rarely so tempted and seldom caught,
except by trolling with the minnow. In short," he remarks, " so various are they
that in no two lakes do they perfectly agree, either in their average size, form,
colouring, or even in their habits." In examining 8 examples from the above
locality I found the following variations : D. g 3 _ T 4 o, A. flf, L. 1. 118-128, Ccec. pyl.
(in one example) 28, (32-44, Giinther). The number of rows of scales descending
to the lateral-line varied from 166 to 180. Passing on to the Loch Rannoch charr,
S. struanensis (Maitland), we see certain differences present (see plate cxvii,
fig. 2).

D. f, A. f:f , L. 1. 120, Ccec. pyl. 28, 160 scales descended from the back to
the L. 1.

The fins in some examples are more developed than in others, and may be said
to be in many respects intermediate between S. alpinus and 8. killinensis, but the
most peculiar feature is the dark colour of the specimens. Among the examples
sent to me by Sir J. Gibson-Maitland was a common trout from Loch Rannoch,
which showed the same dark colours and well-developed fins. The eye in some of
these charr was rather large, which, taken in conjunction with the dark colours of
the body and somewhat developed fins, would seem to indicate its living at some
considerable depth.

Names. Charr or char. Torgoch ("red belly"), Wales. Bed-wame, Scotland.
Jj 'ombre-chevalier, French.

In olden time the credulous were taught that three sons of the Church intro-
duced these fishes into Wales from Rome, and placed two in each of the Lakes of
Llanberris, Llynumber, and Trevennyn.

Habits. A gregarious and usually deep swimming fish, shy of taking a bait
and feeding largely at night-time. The common food of the trout has been found
in its stomach, while when in confinement it can be similarly fed. It appears to
require very pure and mostly deep water for its residence, but is found in some
Irish lakes which are not very deep.

It has been observed to have disappeared from some lakes due to the entrance
therein of poisonous matter as from lead mines,* but in other localities where no
such deleterious substances have obtained access, as Loch Leven, and some of the
Irish Loughs, it has been suggested that such may be dependant upon the
diminution or disappearance of such entomostraca as previously formed its
natural food. It does not bear confinement well, but may be kept for a short
period in troughs through which a supply of water flows. Thompson, in 1835,
observed that they were thus kept at Coniston water at the hotel and sold at 10s
a dozen.

Charr have been accused of destroying the eggs and young of the trout.

Knox found in examples from Windermere some entomostraca. Sir J.

* It has been stated to descend to the sea, and it has been asserted that some were captured
there or at the mouths of rivers on the Welsh coast after they had been driven out of Llauberris by
poisoned waters. Further evidence on this point is required.

SALM0N1XVE. 117

Gibson-Maitland found the food in the stomach of all he examined from Lake
Rannock distended with water fleas, Daphnia pidex. Thompson found in some
from L. Inch that their stomachs were crammed with insect larva?, entomostracous
Crustacea, a small Notonecta or boat-fly, bivalve shells of the genus Pisidium, and
minute gravel.

Means of capture. Fishing by bait is best in spring, but is carried on throughout
the summer: very fine tackle is necessary. The best places are the deepest parts
of the lake. They come in autumn into shallow water (see pp. 110, 111, 112).

Baits. -The artificial fly, spinning minnow, or spinning spoon, worms.

Breeding. Dr. J. Davy found 1230 ova in an example weighing about half a
pound, and that the principal spawning season in the lake district is from about
the first week in November to the first in December. Whether, he observes, this
is the only season is somewhat doubtful, as the fishermen at Windermere speak of
a later one in which it is believed by them that fish of the larger size and few in
number deposit their spawn in February and March. He "never heard of one
being taken or seen in the Brathay after December." The locality chosen for
forming a redd is in gravelly shallows in the lakes. They rarely ascend streams
towards their source to spawn, but restrict themselves to near their outlet or
portions where the current is not very rapid although a shallow is necessary.
Thompson observes respecting the time of breeding, that the Loch Killin charr
contained ova the size of peas on September 26th or 27th, whereas in the
neighbouring lake of L. Corr they were in high condition. This is one out of
numerous instances which might be adduced respecting the different periods of
spawning in contiguous localities. In Bavaria in the Kcenigsee, near Berchtesgarten,
some of these fish taken at the latter part of Jane, July and August were found
ready for spawning.

Dr. Davy informs us that Mr. Reynolds, in 1850-51, found none hatched in less
than 60 days, the greater number on the 70th, and from that to the 75th, and some
few as late as the 90th : the average temperature in the breeding boxes being about
40. At about 55^ the process has been completed in 41 days, and there were
some of the same eggs took 90 days in Mr. Reynolds' hatching boxes. Some eggs
of the lake-trout were fertilized with the milt of the charr and commenced
hatching in 70 days.

It was found by Dr. J. Davy that running water is not essential to the
development of the eggs of the charr, from which he concluded that its breeding
place being distinct from that of the trout it is not likely to give rise to hybrids.
" That salt water, even of greater saltness than sea water, is not immediately
fatal to the embryo, even when not included in its shell : moreover, that in
slightly brackish water a partial development of the ovum may take place, and
that the young fish can exist some days in such water, rendering it probable that
the adult may be capable of existing in a tidal stream or even in the sea, where it
is stated that the Welsh charr has been caught."

Life history. The young when artificially reared appear to be somewhat more
delicate than the trout. In Austria it is observed to grow much more rapidly in
some lakes than it does in others. Yarrell states that in the autumn of 1839,
Mr. Upton, near Sedberg, put into the Lillymere Lake, near the reservoir, some
charr taken from Windermere, each weighing about \ lb., and on August 23rd,
1840, took with a fly two 2 lb. weight each, in the finest possible season, well
fed and beautifully coloured.

Hybrids. In Upper Austria, C. Peyrer observes a cross between Salmo salve-
linus and the brook-trout is propagated and excels the pure breed in many respects,
the eggs of the former are milted from the latter. I have seen two specimens
of hybrids over two years of age, the one between a salmon and a Loch Leven
trout, the other between an American charr and a brook-trout ; both were sterile,
but as to whether merely temporarily or permanently I cannot offer any opinion.*

* Lenchart observes upon hybrids between the salmon and brook- or sea-trout that his
experiments led him to conclude that the hybrids are fertile and their offspring not sterile. And
Professor Haack has fertilized the ova of hybrids between charr and trout with the milt of trout
(see p. 59 ante).

118 PHYSOSTOMI.

As food. The flesh of these fishes varies, in some localities it is pink in colour,
in others white. At the lakes they are in the greatest perfection from July until
October. As they soon lose their delicate flavour after removal from the water
they are potted and thus considered a great delicacy.

Habitat. In Norway the red charr lives from a sea level up to 600 metres
above it : in the S.E. portions of the country it is rare, in West Norway more
common and captured in large numbers with a fly. Its flavour varies as greatly
as does that of the trout, and it appears to thrive best in lakes where the temperature
is somewhat uniform, without bottom springs and not having too large an amount
of brook-water flowing in. It extends to Great Britain and Ireland, France,
Southern Germany, and in the clear lakes of the Alps of Upper Austria, Tyrol,
Bavaria, Switzerland, also in the Carpathian lakes up to 6000 feet above the
sea.

The Orkneys, being occasionally captured in Loch Stenness, and three were
obtained in Waas, in 1832 (W. Baikie) : also from North Uist in the Hebrides.
Examples from Sutherlandshire are in the British Museum, while Mr. J. Harvie-
Brown informs me that there is a charr loch about twenty-five miles from
Durness, on Ben Hope, where they are taken up to 1^ lb. weight. At midsummer
they are only known to rise at one part of the loch, on its S.E. side, between the
exit of the stream and the island. In September numbers are taken with both
worm and fly. Mr. Bantock says that charr abound in scores of the Sutherland-
shire lochs, and mentions the one referred to on Ben Hope, and another small loch
(Borley) near the Manse at Durness ; they are also found in the upper end of
Loch Assynt. Thompson recorded their existence and obtained specimens from
Loch Corr, Loch Moy and Loch Killin, Inverness-shire. Specimens from Loch
Dochart, in Perthshire, were in the British Museum according to White, and Sir
J. Gibson-Mai tland has taken them in Loch Rannoch. Pennant recorded them in
Loch Inch, Wigtownshire, and Thompson in Loch Grannoch, Kirkcudbrightshire.
Also an example from Loch Bruiach is in the national collection. Black, 1844,
observed that this fish had of late years disappeared from Loch Leven.

In England the lake districts of Cumberland, Northumberland, and part of
Lancashire, more especially in Windermere, Keswick, Crummoch Water, Butter-
mere, Ennerdale, Coniston Water, Westwater and Hawswater, the area of which
is estimated at 35,320 acres, are those where charr do or did frequent. Winder-
mere, we are informed (1878), is very productive, while in Coniston the fish have
been poisoned by the mines ; they are also found in Rydal. In Windermere they
are somewhat restricted to the deep waters, and spawn in the River Brathay,
avoiding the Rothay, which is more frequented by trout. Some spawn in
November and some are said to do so in February.

In Wales this fish is still found near Snowdon, in the Lake of Llanberris, Llyn
Cawellyn, Coss-y-gedawl and Bettew Festiniog in Merionethshire.

In Ireland. In the county of Donegal it has been taken in Lough Esk
(Camden), also from near Dunfanaghy (Templeton), L. Gartan, L. Kindun,
L. Shessuch, L. Keel (Thompson), and L. Derg (Field, June, 1879), and
L. Elvyn (Couch). In Antrim from L. Neagh (Dubourdieu) : Thompson visited
this place in 1834, and was informed that none had been captured for the last ten
years, although twenty years previously they had been abundant. An old fisher-
man explained the reason as follows : " That they once went down the River
Bann to the sea and never came back again." In Monaghan at Lough Eaghish
(incorrectly spelt Esk) according to Templeton, who stated they had become
very rare and were all but extinct. In Fermanagh at Lough Melvin and L. Erne
(Thompson), Westmeath in Belvidere Lake (Ball), county of Cavanin Drumlane
Lake (Thompson) ; in county of Mayo, Castlebar (Daniel) and Lough Conn
(Pack) ; county of Galway in Lough Corrib, and L. Bonn (Thompson), Longford
at Lough Nabrach (Ball), Connemara in Lough Ourad (Davy), Wicklow in
Lough Dan (Thompson) and L. lada (Couch), Waterford in four mountain lakes
(Smith), and at Inchigeelagh in the county of Cork (Vyse).

In figuring all the reputed species of British charr, as much as possible,
examples have been selected in the National collection in order to prevent the

SALMONID^E. 119

possibility of any error of identification occurring. In the Lake districts they
average from 1^ to over 21b. but they have been obtained many pounds heavier
in weight.

4. Salmo fontinalis, Plate CXX, figs. 1, 2.

Salmo fontinalis, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 435 ;
Richards. Faun. Bor.-Amer. iii, p. 176, pi. lxxxiii, f. 1 and pi. lxxxvii, f. 2; Storer,
Report Fish. Mass. p. 106 ; Kirtl. Report, Zool. Ohio, p. 169, and Boston Journ.
Nat. Hist. 1843, pt. iv, p. 305, pi. xiv, f. 2 ; DeKay, Fauna New York. Fish,
p. 235, pi. xxxviii, f. 120 ; Ayres, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist, iv, 1843, p. 273 ; Cuv.
and Val. xxi, p. 266 ; Bingelow, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist, vi, 1850, p. 49 ; Giinther,
Catal. vi, p. 152.

Salmo hoodii, Richards. 1. c. iii, p. 173, desc. part. (spec, from River Mingan).

Salmo nigrescens, Ratin. Ichth. Ohiens. p. 45.

Baione enjthrogaster, DeKay, Faun. New York. Fish. p. 236, pi. xxxix, f. 126.

Hucho fontinalis, Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 152.

B. x-xi, D. 12-13 (V) I 0, P. 12-13, V. 8-9, A. 10-11 ( y 3 9 -), C. 19, L. 1. 122-
140, L. tr. 36-50/51-63, Cose. pyl. 34, Vert. 59-62.

Length of head 4t\ to 5f (4 J in a male), of caudal fin 6, height of body 4f to 5
in the total length. Eyes diameter of each from 4<\ to 5 or 5|- in the length of
the head, 1 to \\ diameters from the end of the snout, and from 1 to If apart.
Hind edge of preopercle regularly curved and with a very short but distinct
lower limb. Height of opercle equals twice its greatest width ; height of sub-
opercle equals half the length of its lower edge which, with its hind margin, forms
a regular curve. The form of the various opercular pieces in these fishes is liable
to great variation frequently due to an apparent arrest of development ; this is
also seen at Howietown among examples which have had gill-fever in their infancy,
and is considered to be one of its results. In one example the subopercle differs on
the two sides of the same fish. The maxilla reaches to beneath the hind edge of
the eye. Teeth 4 or 5 across the anterior portion of the vomer where that bone
joins the palatine arch but none along its body. In a single row along the palatines
and in the jaws. Fins the rayed dorsal commences slightly nearer to the end
of the snout than to the base of the caudal fin, its third or fourth ray is the longest
and somewhat exceeds the length of the base of the fin. Pectoral extends about
half-way (in some examples more, in others less) to the base of the ventral,
which latter is inserted below the centre of the rayed dorsal fin, laid flat it does
not quite reach the vent. Caudal forked in the young, but becoming square with
age, as seen in the trout. Scales 40 to 49 rows from the lateral-line to the base
of the ventral fin : 21 to 26 rows from the hind edge of the base of the adipose
dorsal fin downwards and forwards to the lateral-line ; from 185 to 235 rows pass
from the back to the lateral-line. Colours greenish along the back, becoming
lighter on the sides and beneath, the whole being beautifully shot with purple and
gold. Numerous round or oval spots along the back becoming fewer below the
lateral-line ; anteriorly from the head to the dorsal fin many coalesce. Red
spots above, on, and sometimes below the lateral-line. White edges with black
bases to the upper margin of the pectoral and the anterior edges of the ventral
and anal. Sinuous bands of black or rings on the dorsal fin : the upper and
lower edges of the caudal barred. During the breeding season, the lower surface
of the body of the male is frequently of an intense velvety black.

Varieties. The following refers to an example 9 inches long, which was
hatched from eggs received from Lake Huron, and which lived some years in a
tank at the Westminster Aquarium.

B. x, D. 13 (f), P. 11, V. 8, A. 10 (f), C. 19.

Length of head 4|, of caudal fin 1\, length of body 5^ in the total length.
Eyes diameter 6 in the length of the head, If diameter from the end of the
snout and 2 diameters apart. Subopercle nearly twice as long as deep. Scales
43 rows from the lateral-line to the base of the ventral fin ; 24 from the hind edge

120 PHYSOSTOMI.

of the base of the adipose dorsal fin to the lateral-line. The figure is on plate
cxx, fig. 2, along with one, fig. 1, raised at Howietown.

Habits. Similar to our charr and, like it, appears to prefer deep water. Is
generally considered to have great roving propensities and is not often found
rising to the fly after having attained a pound in weight. A "conservator"
writing from Shropshire to the Field, remarked that he considered it useless for
turning into a running water, as it drops down stream, while it does not attain
to the size of our brook-trout, and in a lake will not rise well to the fly. He
thought it as bad as pike in destroying other fish, consequently he did not
recommend it, although it is excellent eating, and fights well when hooked. Mr.
Andrews at Guildford, states that he found that his yearlings ran from 8 oz. to
10 oz. and two-year-olds from 1 to 2 lb. each ; three-year-olds averaged 41b., and
four-year-olds go 5^ lb. to 6^ lb. (Land and Water, July 22, 1882.)

Breeding. The eggs as already remarked (page 105) are only about half the size
of those of the brook-trout, and although in some localities it has been observed to
deposit its ova earlier than the trout, it does so mostly at about the same period.
" One very striking character in rearing Sal-mo fontinalis, is the remarkable
difference in the growth of individuals in a single brood of fry from the same
batch of ova : some at great speed outstrip their brethren in a short space
of time, while the majority are probably -| less than these in size at the end of
the first few months" (Carrington, Zool. 1876, p. 5112). It is by no means
uncommon to find some take on cannibal propensities similar to the trout
(page 94).

Hybridism. In June, 1882, I received from Sir Pryse Pryse, Cardiganshire,
an example 9 inches long, evidently a hybrid between this form and the brook-
trout.

B. x, D. 14 ( T %), P. 14, V. r. 9, 1. 8, A. 11 (f), C. 19, L. 1. 119, L. tr. 27/39.

Length of head 5, of caudal fin 5^, height of body 5 in the total length.
Eyes diameter of each 1/5 of the length of the head, lj diameters from the end
of the snout, and If apart. Cleft of mouth deep, the maxilla reaching posteriorly
to beneath the hind edge of the orbit. Hind edge of preopercle with a slight
angle at its centre, also where it commences to form its lower limb, which latter is
distinct. Width of opercle equal to two-thirds of its height. Height of sub-
opercle at its base 2\ in that of the opercle, and having a rounded posterior
margin. Teeth two at the anterior portion of the vomer where it joins the
palatine arch, 6 along the body of that bone at first in alternate rows, but the
last two single, the most posterior one the largest. Scales 170 rows descend from
the back to the lateral-line, 19 from the hind edge of the adipose dorsal in a line
downwards and forwards to the lateral-line ; 29 rows from the lateral-line to the
base of the ventral fin. Fins the dorsal commences midway between the end of
the snout and the base of the caudal fin ; the length of its base equals 3/4 of
its height. Candal emarginate. Colours those of S. fontinalis being gray
rivulated with yellowish-white and wide serpentine bauds, or forming rings
round gray blotches, which have a light central spot. A few red spots along the
lateral-line, but none apparent above or below it. Dorsal, caudal, and ventral
fins coloured similarly to S. fontinalis but the anal with a less distinct black
border at the base of its white outer edge.

As food. It is excellent, the flesh may be white, perfectly pink, or of a deep
red.

Habitat. The fresh waters of British North America, and contiguous portions
of the United States. It has, during the last twenty years, been acclimatized in
this country, and thrives in most places where it has been turned out, either in
Scotland, England, or Wales.

In Norfolk it is said to grow twice as quickly as the brook-trout. It does well
in the stock-ponds at Howietown, near Stirling, also near Guildford, and in other
localities.

The first plate, cxx, fig. 1, is from an example 8| inches long, from Howie-
toun, and fig. 2 from an example kept for some years in a tank at the Westminster
Royal Aquarium.

SALMONID^. 121

Genus II Osmerus, Artedi.

Branchiostegals seven or eight : pseudobranchive rudimentary. Body somewhat
elongated. Cleft of mouth deep. The maxilla almost extending to beneath the hind
edge of the orbit. Teeth in upper jaws smaller than those in tlie lower, in a transverse
band across the vomer, some being fang-like, also strong ones along the palatine and
pterygoid bones. Large fang-like teeth anteriorly on the tongue and posteriorly
smaller ones. Scales of moderate size. Pyloric appendages few and short. Ova small.

In Newfoundland, 0. viridescens ascends the smaller streams in thousands as
the ice disappears (Saxby, Zool. 1871, p. 2553). A nearly allied genus, Thaleich-
thys, exists on the Pacific coast of North America, and so full of oil are they that
their common name is candle-fish, or oolachan, as after having been sun dried they
can be lighted, and will burn with a spluttering flame to the end (Angler's
Note-book, p. 124). An oil, reputed to be medicinal, has been introduced into
this country under the head of Oolachan oil, and is scarcely distinguishable from
cod-liver oil (Nature, May 12th, 1881).

Geographical distribution. Atlantic coasts of temperate and northern portions
of Europe and North America, ascending rivers to spawn and frequently becoming
resident there. One species from California.

Its growth is said to be frequently much retarded when passing from a marine
to a fresh-water existence, in some parts of northern Europe it is acclimatized
where there is no available outlet to the ocean.

Osmerus eperlanus, Plate CXXI, fig. 1.

Eperlanus, Belon. De Aquat. p. 288 ; Rondel, ii. 196 ; Aldrov. iv, c. 12, p. 536 ;
Jonston, ii, c. 2, t. xxiv, f. 3 ; Will. p. 202, t. N. 6, f. 4 ; Ray, p. 66. Spirinchus,
Jonston, t. xlvii, f. 6 ; Schonev. p. 70, t. vii. Osmerus, No. 1, Artedi, Gen. p. 10,
Syuon. p. 21, and Spec. p. 45. Salmo, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 373. Eperlanus
Schonfoldii, Rutty, Nat. Hist. Dublin, i, p. 358. Trutta, sp. Klein, Pise. Miss, v,
p. 20, no. 12, t. iv, f. 2-4. Smelt, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776), iii, p. 313. pi.
lxxi (Ed. 1812), iii, p. 416, pi. lxxii. Salmo eperlanus var. marinus, Walb. Artedi,
iii, p. 57.

Salmo eperlanus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 511 ; Bloch, i, p. 176, t. xxviii, f. 2;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1375 ; Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 164, pi. lxviii, fig. 276 ; Bl. Schn.
p. 410; Donovan, Brit. Fish, ii, pi. xlviii; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 104; Pallas,
Zoo. Ros.-As. iii, p. 386 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 152.

Salmo eperlano-marinus, Bl. i, p. 128, t. xxviii, f. 1.

Osmerus eperlanus, Lacep. v, pp. 229, 231 ; Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. iii,
p. 185 ; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 181 ; Ekstr. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1834, p. 7 and
Fische v. M'irko, p. 191 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 429 ; Tarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 1) ii, p.
75, c. fig. (ed. 2) ii, p. 129 (ed. 3) i. p. 295 ; Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 371, pi. 620 ;
Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 312 and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 152 ; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 173 ; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, p. 433 ; Kroyer, Danm.
Fisk. iii, p. 1; Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 371, pi. 620; Siebold, Siisswas. p. 271;
White, Catal. p. 79 ; Schlegel, Dieren van Neder. p. 131 ; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 167 ; Malm. Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 339 and Fauna, p. 549 ;
Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 166; Mcintosh, Fish. St. Andrews, p. 181; Blanchard,
Poiss. France, p. 441, fig. cxiv ; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 44 ; Houghton, Brit.
Freshwater Fishes, p. 161, c. fig.; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 162; Feddersen,
Danske F. Fiske, p. 78 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 541.

Salmo {Osmerus) spirinchus, Pall. Zoogr. Ross. -As. iii. p. 387.

Eperlanus vulgaris, Gaim. Voy. Isl. and Grcenl. Poiss. pi. xviii, f. 2.

Osmerus spirinchus, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 387.

122 PHYSOSTOMI.

Smell, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 276, pi. ccxxvii.

B. vii-viii, D. 10-12 | 0, P. 11-12, V. 8-9, A. 13-16 (17), C. 19, L. 1. 60-65,
L. tr. 7/11, Ccec. pyl. 7, Vert. 60-62.

Length of head 4^- to 5i, of caudal fin 6~ to 7, height of body 6 to 6| or even
7 in the total length. Eyes diameter of each 4| to 6| in the length of the head, 1
to 2 diameters from the end of the snout, and 2 apart. Its back is more rounded
than its abdominal edge ; sides rather flattened. Lower jaw the longer ; the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the hind edge of the orbit.
Teeth those in the upper smaller than those in the lower jaw, where they are
in two rows, the inner the larger, they increase in size posteriorly. Large fang-
like ones on the vomer. Teeth also present on the tongue. Fins The first dorsal
commences midway between the hind edge of the eye and the base of the caudal
fin; the second or adipose dorsal over the middle of the anal. Ventrals inserted
below the anterior rays of the dorsal fin. Caudal forked. Scales cycloid and
deciduous ; 6 rows between the lateral-line and the base of the ventral fin.
Lateral-line indistinct after the first few scales. Ccecal pylori seven very short
ones, scarcely perceptible except after the intestines have been distended. Colours
of a light olive-green, superiorly, becoming silvery shot with purple on the
sides and beneath. A wide silvery band passes along each side, numerous fine
black dots are present on the head, back, dorsal and caudal fins more especially
in large examples. Caudal dark edged. Eyes silvery.

Varieties Linnaeus considered that in the Baltic there were two forms, one
termed nors possessed a foul odour, which in the early spring when the peasants
come to buy it, fills all the streets of Upsal with the smell ; adding that at this
period agues prevail there. Valenciennes considered this to be 0. spirinchus,
Pallas, having a shorter body than the common form, and that it must have been
from one of this variety that Bloch figured his fish in plate xxviii. Bloch
erroneously believed that the same cause occasioned like results in London.

Names. Smelt is said to be derived from its possessing a peculiar odour :
resembling cucumbers, violets, or rushes. Jonston imagiued that the term smelt
was used in the sense of smelting metals, and derived from the transparent
appearance of the fish, as if it were going to melt away. Sir J. Browne termed them
spirinches, and a small one a priame. The Germans, owing to its aroma, term it
the "stinkfisch," and Linnaaus observes that the odour from some, warrants
the German epithet : Taylor (Hardw. Sc. Gossip) has known the smelts to come
up in such numbers that it was easy to detect the peculiar cucumber smell which
distinguishes them, by walking along the river side. Sparling is a corruption
of the French term " Eperlan," or else the two words are of a similar origin.
Sprot is termed by Palsgrave to be a " sprat " or a " smelt." Spurring, North-
umberland : Prim is the fry (East). Sibbald (Scotia, Illustrata) has an Apua
vera, which he termed Sparling, Apua or Aphia were names which used to be
applied to a goby. Be spiering or spierling, Dutch. Eperlan, French.

Habits. A gregarious and voracious species, remaining with us throughout
the year, and passing a portion of each season in fresh, and the remainder, as a
rule, in salt water, but irregular in its migrations, continuing in some rivers five
or six months, in others hardly as many weeks. It is generally found in rivers
or fresh waters, from August until May. In the Thames it rarely ascends above
Woolwich, but Buckland in March, 1868, received three live ones captured nearly
as high as Teddington, while others were taken near Kew Bridge. This year
(1882) some were present at the end of September, and had selected their
spawning quarters in the tideway opposite Chiswick Mill, and Strand-on-the-
Green.

One fully 9 inches long was captured while bleak fishing at Wooden-bridge-
creek, Hammersmith. It drives the dace before it, these latter fish ascending
to Richmond, Isleworth, &c. (Field). Lubbock observed the same migrations of
roach and dace in Norfolk, fleeing from the smelts,* which regularly ascend the

* M. de la Blanchere observes thai the odour of the smelt drives other fish away, and thus
protects it lroiu its enemies.

SALMONID^E. 123

rivers in spring to spawn, and only stops its upward course at some insurmount-
able barrier. It appears to be particularly partial to small fish and shrimps.
In some parts of Sweden, Nilsson found that they remained in lakes which
possess sandy bottoms all the year round : in the spring they migrate to the
shallow portions and ascend rivers.

Colonel Meynell, of Yarm, in Yorkshire, kept these fish for four years in a
fresh- water pond, which had no communication with the sea ; and Yarrell states
that they continued to thrive and propagated abundantly. The pond being
frozen over did not affect them, and they did not lose either flavour or quality
(Wern. Mem. December 17th, 1825). Mr. Egerton acclimatized these fish in
fresh water, in a lake at Roselherne Manor, Knutsford, Cheshire. Many are
kept alive in tanks in the Norwich fish-market until required for use (Southwell).

Mr. W. Wanklv of Grange-over- Sands, Lancashire, sent an account of these
fish to Land and Water, and observed he was much struck with the very rapid
growth of the sparling from October to March in October ten or twelve
together weighed no more than 1 lb., in March the fish were 4 oz. to 6 oz. each,
and occasionally one or more in a take weighed close on 8 oz. He opened a
sparling as soon as it was taken out of the net, and found six, seven, and eight
herring fry : next he tried the experiment of thus opening one or two alive, and
taking others home intact, and always found nothing but digested food when
the latter were gutted to be cooked. Opening some of the herring fry taken
out of the fresh-taken sparling, i.e., just out of the water, he repeatedly found
in the herring fry small shrimps, most neatly stowed away. The gastric juice or
fluid of the sparling was so acrid, that when he wiped his hands on his pocket-
handkerchief and then used the handkerchief to blow his nose, both his nostrils
and lips were inflamed and irritated, and more than once his tongue swelled in an
extraordinary manner. The sparling were following and feeding on the herring
fry, or herring ewes, as they are called there. The sparling are very uncertain
and apparently fickle in their visits to their supposed haunts i.e., in holes near
rocks, where fresh-water streams mingle with tidal water. One day 201b. or
30 lb. may be taken ; then for a week or ten days only an odd fish or two will
be got; then a week of good takes. They are easily driven away, for on one
occasion some men left a boat anchored in a hole to reserve the right of first
draw. Whilst that boat remained there no sparling rested in the hole, but when
it was removed they returned to their haunt.

Means of capture. In Norfolk the fishery commences in March, and continues
until the middle of April, during which period the fish are full of roe. The
smelter, says Lubbock, hour after hour does he persevere, moored exactly in the
same spot with a torch attached to the side of his broad flat-bottomed boat (for
this is a nocturnal occupation) in flinging his immense casting net, dropping the
near side of it at each throw, within three inches of the torch. One fortunate
cast, if smelts sell well, may recompense him for hours of fatigue, wet, and cold :
and he waits like the losing gambler for the lucky throw which is to brighten his
fortune. The smelts captured are kept alive in a tank. They are likewise taken
in the estuary of the Ouse and in Brejdon by means of stake nets. It appears to
be partial to sandy shores, as off the Lincolnshire coast, while the different schools
appear to consist of fish much of one size.

At the outlets of many of our larger rivers were or are smelt fisheries which
must have been carried on for long periods, because we find a mesh for the
purpose of taking smelts legalized at the time of Queen Elizabeth. They may
be caught with a paternoster line and No. 8 or 9 hooks, floats may or may not be
used, shrimps either fresh or boiled, gentles, a red worm, or slices of fish form
good baits. Bread crumbs have been recommended as ground bait Early
moimings and late of evenings have been considered the best times for this fishing.

In the Solway Firth the best fishing season is in September, but they
disappear the next month until March and April when they ascend to spawn.

Breeding. Ova small, of a yellow colour, while the females are said to
preponderate largely in numbers over the males. On January 13th, 1882, the
season being very mild, I obtained smelts with the ova half developed. They

124 PHYSOSTOMI.

generally deposit their spawn about March or April, and mostly near the high
water spring-tide mark, subsequent to which they descend to the sea. In March,
according to Parnell, they ascend the Forth in large shoals, and shed their spawn
in immense quantities about two miles below Stirling Bridge, where at that time
every stone, plank, and post appear to be covered with their yellowish-coloured
ova. The fry are found about 3 inches long, swimming near the surface in shoals
in the rivers in the month of August, ascending and descending with the tide
(Yarrell). In America, at Maryland, the attempt to artificially propagate a
species of this genus in 1877 proved unsuccessful.

As food. The smelt is justly held in great estimation for the table, but after
spawning becomes insipid. It used to be split and dried and was thus considered to
add a particular relish to the morning dram of spirits. Spring fishing for smelts
is said to be inimical to smolts in Solway Firth, while in autumn the nets kill the
parent fish. It is said by the French to be a good bait for eels : while the picked
dog fish, Acanthias vulgaris, destroy large numbers of them in estuaries.

Habitat. Coasts of Northern and Central Europe (probably excluding
Iceland), and entering fresh waters, found in all the larger lakes of Finland,
as well as along the sea shore (Malm). Along the Atlantic coast of France,
abounding in the summer, and in the Seine as high as Rouen.

Banffshire, rare (Edward). St. Andrews, not uncommon, large numbers
being caught in the Tay (Mcintosh).

In the Firth of Forth, in the neighbourhood of Alloa, it is taken in great
numbers, especially towards the fall of the year. Those captured from November
till January seldom exceed 6 inches in length, but after the end of March the
larger ones appear and the smaller ones take their departure (Parnell). Some of
the rivers of East Anglia abound in these most beautiful and delicious fish,
which are resident and common in the estuaries of the Tees and of the Humber.
Also in the Ouse and the Humber from Nabura Loch to Spurn Point, and
occurs a considerable distance up the Tees (Yorkshire Vertebrata). There is a
smelt fishery at Boston in Lincolnshire, from September until May, the fish being
full of ova in April. It seems to be absent along our south coast from Dover to
Land's End. Dr. Norman, of Yarmouth, in 1881, mentions in Land and Water a
fine specimen he saw in Mrs. French's shop window at Yarmouth, scaling over
seven ounces. Their cucumber-like smell when first caught is very perceptible.
Then they are indeed a treat ; but, in a few hours after, become comparatively
insipid. Found in the estuaries of the Thames and Medway, in which latter
river Pennant observed it never enters so long as snow water is present.

Parfitt (Fauna of Devon, p. 19) observes of this fish, "taken in the Exe :
Eoss, MSS.,i, p. 55." Having been shown the MSS. by Mr. D'Urban at the
Albert Institute, Exeter, I find that it is the sand smelt, or Atherine, which
Mr. Ross referred to. It has been asserted that this fish has been captured as far
south as Swansea, but the statement is doubted by Dillwyn, who never found it
there. Examples from Conway are in the British Museum. Along the west
coast this fish is taken in the Dee and in the Mersey, while at Ulverstone they
are found heavy with spawn about the middle of March, the fishery being
concluded by the middle of April. There are also smelt fisheries in the estuaries
of many of the rivers which enter the Solway, where they arrive in March or
April to spawn, they are very small in June and July, but at their prime in
September. They do not appear to ascend above brackish w T ater in order to
deposit their ova.

In Ireland, Rutty, in his natural history of the county of Dublin, and Smith
in that of Cot'k, mentions the capture of the smelt, and Templeton (Mag. Nat. Hist.
1837 (2), i, p. 411) asserts that it is sometimes taken on the coast in considerable
abundance, but often several years intervene during which they are scarcely met
with ; Thompson suggests that these authors allude to the Atherine or sand smelt
(i, p. 225), as he cannot find any authentic record of the true smelt having been
captured in Ireland.

It attains to 10 or 12 inches in length. Pennant alludes to one of 13 inches
which weighed 1^ lb. The example figured is 10 2 inches in length.

SALMONID^, 125

Genus III Coregonds, Artedi.

Argyrosomus, Agassiz (lower jaw the longer).

Branchiostegals seven to ten : pseudobranchiai well developed. Body somewhat
elongated. Cleft of mouth shallow : maxilla deep, and posteriorly not extending
to behind the orbits. Teeth, when present, minute and deciduous. First dorsal
fin with a moderate number of rays, the second adipose. Caudal forked. Scales
of moderate size'. Air-bladder large. Pyloric appendages numerous. Ova small.

Some authors have believed that the vendace, Coregonus vandesius, was
introduced into Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, from the continent of Europe,
by or for the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots. As the species has not been
recognized on continental Europe, is difficult to transport, while it is not
restricted to one Scottish loch, this tradition appears to rest on an uncertain
foundation. In aquaria a very little matter affects them, a trifling variation of
temperature, a little impurity or a difference between the oxygenating surfaces
of two tanks, Lloyd proved were matters of life or death.

It has been questioned by some excellent authorities whether the species of
this genus may not have been unduly multiplied, and M. de la Blanchere (Diet,
des Peches) observed that after a special study made at the Imperial establishment
at Huningen, whei'e he had fishes of all ages under observation, he had come
to the conclusion that either the genus Coregonus ought to be composed of many
distinct species, these distinctions being based upon fugitive and little marked
characters : or else, that a single species is present endowed with great
variability.*

Geographical distribution. Mostly found in lakes, a few periodically migrating
to the sea, in the northern portions of temperate Europe, Asia, and North
America : while some appear to be marine. There are numerous species, several
being found living in a single lake. In North America, under the term of " white
fish," they are captured throughout the fresh waters. Dr. J. Davy observed that
the vendace and skelley are rarely taken by anglers, or any way except by the
net, and are of comparatively little value. It cannot be supposed that man ever
took the trouble to place the skelley in a tarn such as the Red-Tarn, situated
under the brow of Helvellyn, many hundred feet above Ullswater, and so
difficult of access. Much the same reflection presents itself as regards the
vendace in Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite Lake, taking into account the
distance of these lakes from Loch Maben.

Synopsis of Species.

1. Coregonus ozyrhynchus.T). 14-15, A. 14-15, L. 1. 75-80, 7f rows of scales
between the lateral-line and the insertion of the ventral fin. Snout soft and
produced into a conical form. Marine entering fresh water.

2. Coregonus clupeoides.D. 13-15, A. 13-16, L. 1. 73-90, 7\ to 8 rows of
scales between the lateral-line and the insertion of the ventral fin. Snout
vertically truncated. Fresh waters of the Lake districts and also of Wales.

3. Coregonus vandesius. D. 11, A. 13-14, L. 1. 66-70, seven rows of scales
between the lateral-line and the insertion of the ventral fin. Lower jaw the
larger. Fresh- water lochs of Scotland.

4. Coregonus pollan.D. 13-14, A. 12-14, L. 1. 80-88, nine rows of scales
between the lateral-line and the insertion of the ventral fin. Jaws anteriorly
of equal length. Fresh waters of Ireland.

* Collett (Norges Fiske) considers as pertaining to C. lavaretus, C. murcena, Bloch,
C. Widegrmii, Malmgr. C. lapponicus, Gunther, Q. gracilis, Giinther ; also probably C.
maxillaris, Gunther, and C. humilis, Gunther.

126 PHYSOSTOMI.

1. Coregonus oxyrhynchus, Plate CXXI, fig. 2.

Oxyrhynchus, Rondel, ii, p. 195 ; Gesner, p. 771 ; Willughby, p. 187.
Albida nobilis, Schonev. (not Gesner), p. 12. Coregonus, sp. Artedi, Synon.
p. 21, no. 4, Genera, p 10, no. 4. Salmo, sp. Gronov. Zooph. no. 374.

Salmo (Coregonus) oryrinchus, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 512 ; Lacep. v, pp. 263,
267 ; Gmel. Linn. p. 1383 ; Bormat. Ency. Ich., p. 167 ; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 152.

Tripteronohis hautin, Lacep. v, p. 48.

Salmo lavaretus, Bl. i, p. 163, t. xxv (not Linn.).

Salmo thymallus latus, Bl. i, p. 170, t. xxvi.

Coregonus oxyrinchus, Kroyer, Danm. Fisk. p. 76, c. fig.

Coregonus oxyrhynchus, Ekstrom, Fische Morko, p. 198 ; Cuv. and Val. xxi,
p. 488, pi. 630; Selys-Longch. Fauna Beige, p. 222 and Bull. Acad. Belg. ix, 1842,
p. 510 ; Malm* Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 323, and Fauna, p. 544 ; Siebold,
Siisswasser. f. p. 260 ; Schlegel, Dieren Neder., p. 135, pi. xiii, f. 2 ; Blanchard,
Poiss. France, p. 433, f. 112 ; Gunther, Catal. vi, p. 173; Collett, Norges Fiske,
1875, p. 165 ; Day, P. Z. S. 1877, p. 419, c. caput. ; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii,
p. 552.

B. ix, D. 14-15( T |:^r) | P. 15-16, V. 12-13, A. 14-15 ( T ^), C. 20, L. 1. 75-80,
L. tr. 8-9/12, Vert. 58.

Length of head 4| to 5, of caudal fin 5 \ to 5 \, height of body h\ to 6 in the
total length. Eyes diameter of each 4i to 4| in the length of the head, \\ to
l diameters from the end of the snout, and 1\ to 1\ apart. Snout produced
into a conical point beyond the upper jaw which is longer than the lower
jaw ; the maxilla reaching to below the first third of the eye. Length of
lower limb of the preopercle 3/4 of that of the vertical limb. Sub opercle
rounded posteriorly. Teeth in the jaws may be present or absent, being very
deciduous, when present like little needle points rather far asunder in the upper
jaw. Gill rakers not so long as the eye. Fins first dorsal commences rather
nearer the snout than to the base of the caudal fin, its longest ray 2/3 the
height of the body below it. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the snout or
behind the middle of the eye. Anal commences anterior to the vertical from the
commencement of the adipose dorsal. Caudal forked. Scales about 34 anterior
to the base of the rayed dorsal fin ; 7g between the lateral-line and base of the
ventral, where there is an elongated scale. Intestines stomach siphonal with
about 200 short ccecal appendages. Colours gray along the back becoming
silvery on the sides and beneath. Snout black. Fins yellow, upper edge of
dorsal black ; tip of adipose dorsal and caudal gray, a dark mark across ventral,
and a slight band along the anal.

Varieties. Valenciennes observes that two varieties exist : the one blackish
with a shorter snout from Lake Malarn ; the other paler in colour, having a longer
snout, found in Lake Wenern, and termed Nabb-sik.

Names. Houting or Hautin, from the Dutch, a probable corruption, according
to Valenciennes, from Whiting.

Habits. Mostly marine, but enters fresh waters. It seems to do better in a
fresh water than in a marine aquarium.

Habitat. Coasts of Northern Europe, entering fresh waters in Holland,
Germany, and Denmark. I received the first recorded British example April
17th, 1877, from Lincolnshire ; in March, 1880, the late Mr. Buckland sent me
one captured near Chichester. February, 1881, I obtained a third from the
mouth of the Medway, taken from among some smelts.

Rutty (Nat. Hist. Co. Dublin, 1772, i, p. 365) observed, " Thymallus, the
Grayling or Umber. With us it is a sea fish, and less than Willughby's, which
is a river fish." He may have been referring to Coregonus oxyrhynchus.

The figure is from the Lincolnshire example, 7 inches long, already referred
to, but the fish attains to more than twice this length.

* Malm considers Coregonus marmna, Nilsson, and C. Widegrenii, Malmgren, as synonymous
for this species, and probably G. Lloydii, Guuther.

SALMONIDiE. 127

2. Coregonus clupeoides, Plate CXXII.

Guiniad, Will. p. 183; Gioyniad, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 316, pi.
lxiii (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 419, pi. lxxiii.

_ Coregonus clupeoides, Lacep. v, p. 698 ; White, Catal. p. 81 ; Thompson, Nat.
Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 170; Giinther, Catal. vi, p. 188 ; Houghton, Brit. Freshwater
Fishes, p. 153, c. fig.

Salmo lavaretus, Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 104.

Coregonus lavaretus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 182 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 431 ; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (ed. 2) ii, p. 142.

Coregomis Cepedei, Parnell, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1838, i, p. 162, c. fig. ; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (ed. 2) ii, p. 151 (ed. 3) i, p. 314 ; Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 503.

Coregonus microcephalus, Parnell, 1. c. p. 163, e. fig.

Coregonus Pennantii, Cuv. and Val. xxi, p. 507 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (ed. 3) i,
p. 310 ; White, Catal. p. 80.

Guiniad and Powan, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, pp. 286, 295, pis. ccxxix,
ccxxxii.

B. ix, D. 13-15 ( T 3 ol* T 2) | 0, P. 17, V. 11-12, A. 13-16 ( T5 .y, C. 19, L. 1.
73-90, L. tr. 9/11, Vert. 38/28.

Length of head 5 to 5, of caudal fin 5, height of body 4^ to 5| in the total
length. Eyes diameter of each 4 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the
end of the snout, and 1 \ apart. Snout truncated : the upper jaw somewhat longer
than the lower ; the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third of the orbit and is
slightly longer than the diameter of the eye, while the length of the mandible is
2/5 of that of the head. Nostrils close together, midway between the eye and the
end of the snout. As, in some examples, there is a slight depression at the nape
it gives the appearance as if the back behind the head were somewhat arched.
Teeth absent or very minute. Fins the first dorsal commences midway between
the end of the snout and the termination of the base of the adipose fin, it is two-
thirds to three-fourths as high as the body beneath it Pectoral inserted below
the middle of the depth of the side, and is as long as the head excluding the snout.
Ventral below the middle of the first dorsal, and midway between the posterior
extremity of the head and the commencement of the base of the anal fin. Caudal
deeply for